Articles
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INFERENCES OF THE FORAMINIFERAL ASSEMBLAGES IN THE CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS LA LUNA-COLÓN (CATATUMBO BASIN, COLOMBIA)
Published 2017-10-06
Keywords
- Upper Cretaceous,
- Catatumbo Basin,
- foraminifers,
- La Luna-Colón formations,
- paleoenvironments
How to Cite
Patarroyo, G. D., Torres, G. A., Rincón, D. A., Cárdenas, C. P., & Márquez, R. E. (2017). BIOSTRATIGRAPHY AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INFERENCES OF THE FORAMINIFERAL ASSEMBLAGES IN THE CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS LA LUNA-COLÓN (CATATUMBO BASIN, COLOMBIA). Boletín De Geología, 39(3), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.18273/revbol.v39n3-2017002
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Abstract
The micropaleontological survey (foraminifers) of a stratigraphic core and its integration with previous data from other wells in the Catatumbo Basin provided the biostratigraphic and paleoenvironmental characterization of the contact between La Luna and Colon formations. For the upper part of La Luna Formation (Coniacian-Santonian) the foraminiferal assemblages were less diversified, with a high proportion of infaunal foraminifera and biserial plancktonics, suggesting an oxygen-depleted open marine environment probably related with higher surface productivity. Taxa such as Bolivinoides spp. (Bolivina explicata), Anomalina redmondi, Praebulimina spp., and Heterohelix spp. were found in this unit. In contrast, for the lowermost Colon Formation, the foraminiferal assemblages were diverse, mainly composed by epifaunal benthic foraminifera and non-keeled plancktonics suggesting well to moderate oxygenated conditions in an inner shelf setting. Taxa such as Globotruncana spp., Rugoglobigerina spp., Siphogenerinoides spp., Anomalina spp., Pullenia cretacea, Praebulimina petroleana and Haplophragmoides excavata were considered as diagnostic of the lower Colon Formation (Socuy Member), with a late Campanian-Maastrichtian age.
This turnover in the foraminiferal assemblages and the interpreted paleoenvironments have been observed in all the studied wells in the Catatumbo Basin, agreeing with previous studies that suggest a discordant contact between these two units.
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References
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Ayala-Calvo, R.C., Bayona-Chaparro, G.A., Ojeda-Marulanda, C., Cardona, A., Valencia, V., Padrón, C.E., Yoris, F., Mesa-Salamanca, J., y García, A. 2009. Estratigrafía y procedencia de las unidades comprendidas entre el Campaniano y el Paleógeno en la subcuenca de Cesar: aportes a la evolución tectónica del área. Geología Colombiana, 34: 3-33.
Bolli, H.M., Beckmann, J.P., and Saunders, J.B. 1994. Benthic foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the South Caribbean region. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 411p.
Bürgl, H., y Dumit, Y. 1954. El Cretáceo Superior en la región de Girardot. Boletín Geológico, 2: 23-48.
Caron, M. 1985. Cretaceous planktic foraminifera. In: Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J., and Perch- Nielsen, K. (Eds.). Plankton Stratigraphy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 17-86.
Castillo, M.V., and Mann, P. 2006. Cretaceous to Holocene structural and stratigraphic development in south Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, inferred from well and three-dimensional seismic data. AAPG Bulletin, 90(4): 529-565.
Clavijo, J. 1994. Mapa geológico generalizado del Departamento de Norte de Santander. Escala 1:250.00. Memoria Explicativa. Bucaramanga: INGEOMINAS.
Cooney, P.M., and Lorente, M.A. 2009. A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data. Geological Society Special Publications, 328: 687-703.
Corliss, B.H., and Chen, C. 1988. Morphotype patterns of Norwegian Sea deep-sea benthic foraminifera and ecological implications. Geology, 16(8): 716-719.
Cushman, J.A., and Hedberg, H.D. 1930. Notes on some foraminifera from Venezuela and Colombia. Contributions from the Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research, 6: 64-69.
Cushman, J.A., and Hedberg, H.D. 1941. Upper Cretaceous foraminifera from Santander del Norte, Colombia. Contributions from the Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research, 17: 79-100.
De Romero, L.M., and Galea-Alvarez, F.A. 1995. Campanian Bolivinoides and microfacies from Luna Formation, western Venezuela. Marine Micropaleontology, 26(1-4): 385-404.
Dubicka, Z., and Peryt, D. 2016. Bolivinoides (Benthic foraminifera) from the Upper Cretaceous of Poland and western Ukraine: Taxonomy, evolutionary changes and stratigraphic significance. Journal of Foraminiferal Research, 46(1): 75-94.
Erlich, R.N., Macsotay, O., Nederbragt, A.J., Palmer-Koleman, S.E., and Lorente, M.A. 1999. Paleoecology, paleogeography, and depositional environments of the Upper Cretaceous rocks of Western Venezuela. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 153(1-4): 203-238.
Frizzell, D.L. 1954. Handbook of Cretaceous Foraminifera of Texas. University of Texas Press. Austin, 232p.
Gandolfi, R. 1955. The genus Globotruncana in northeastern Colombia. Bulletin of American Paleontology, 30(155): 1-20.
Georgescu, M.D. 2005. On the systematics of rugoglobigerinids (planktonic foraminifera, late Cretaceous). Studia Geologica Polonica, 124: 87-97.
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.D., and Ogg, G.M. 2012. The geologic time scale 2012. Elsevier. Amsterdam, 1176p.
Guerrero, J., Sarmiento, G., and Navarrete, R.E. 2000. The Stratigraphy of the W side of the Cretaceous Colombian basin in the Upper Magdalena Valley. Reevaluation of selected areas and type localities including Aipe, Guaduas, Ortega, and Piedras. Geología Colombiana, 25: 45-110.
Hammer, O., Harper, D.A.T., and Ryan, P.D. 2001. PAST: paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electrononica, 4(1): 1-9.
Hayek, L.A.C., and Buzas, M.A. 1997. Surveying natural populations. Columbia University Press. Nueva York, 562p.
Hedberg, H.D., and Sass, L.C. 1937. Synopsis of the geologic formations of the western part of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Boletín de Geología y Minas (Venezuela), 1(2-4): 73-112.
Jorissen, F.J., De Stigter H.C., and Widmark, J.G.V. 1995. A conceptual model explaining benthic foraminiferal microhabitats. Marine Micropaleontology, 26(1-4): 3-15.
Jorissen, F.J., Fontanier, C., and Thomas, E. 2007. Paleoceanographical indicators based on deep-sea benthic foraminiferal assemblage characteristics. Developments in Marine Geology, 1: 263-325.
Julivert, M. 1968. Lexique stratigraphique international. Vol 5. Amérique Latine, Fasc. 4a Colombie. Paris, 651p.
Kehrer, L. 1937. Some observations on Cretaceous and Pre-cretaceous beds in the south western and northern-central parts of Venezuela. Boletín de Geología y Minas (Venezuela), 1(2-4): 47-70.
Koutsoukos, E.A.M, and Merrick, K.A. 1986. Foraminiferal paleoenvironments from the Barremian to Maastrichtian of Trinidad, West Indies. I Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, pp. 85-101.
Koutsoukos, E.A.M., and Hart, M.B. 1990. Cretaceous foraminiferal morphogroup distribution patterns, paleocommunities and trophic structures: A case study from the Sergipe Basin, Brazil. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences, 81: 221-246.
Koutsoukos, E.A.M. 1992. Late aptian to maastrichtian foraminiferal biogeography and palaeoceanography of the Sergipe Basin, Brazil. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 92(3-4): 295-324.
Kugler, H.G., and Bolli, H.M. 1967. Cretaceous biostratigraphy in Trinidad. Boletín Informativo, Asociación Venezolana de Geología, Minería y Petróleos, 10: 209-236.
Loeblich, A.R. Jr., and Tappan, H. 1988. Foraminiferal genera and their classification. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, 970p.
Loeblich, A.R. Jr., Tappan, H., Beckmann, J.P., Bolli, H.M., Montarano G.E., and Troelsen, J. 1957. Studies in Foraminifera. Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C., 323p.
Lugo, J., and Mann, P. 1995. Jurassic–Eocene tectonic evolution of Maracaibo basin, Venezuela. AAPG Memoir, 62: 699-725.
Magurran, A.E. 2004. Measuring Biological Diversity. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford, 260p.
Mann, P., Escalona, A., and Castillo, M.V. 2006. Regional geologic and tectonic setting of the Maracaibo supergiant basin, western Venezuela. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 90(4): 445-477.
Martínez, R. J.I. 1989. Foraminiferal bioestratigraphy and paleoenvironments of the Maastrichtian Colon mudstones of Northern South America. Micropaleontology, 35(2): 97-113.
Martínez, J.I. 2003. The Paleoecology of late Cretaceous upwelling events from the Upper Magdalena Basin, Colombia. Palaios, 18(4-5): 305-320.
Martínez, J.I., and Hernández, R. 1992. Evolution and drowning of the late cretaceous Venezuelan carbonate platform. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 5(2): 197-210.
Murray, J.W. 2006. Ecology and applications of benthic foraminifera. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 426p.
Nederbragt, A. 1991. Late Cretaceous biostratigraphy and development of Heterohelicidae (planktic foraminifera). Micropaleontology, 37(4): 329-372.
Notestein, F., Hubman, C., and Bowler, J. 1944. Geology of the Barco Concession, Republic of Colombia, South America. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 55(10): 1165-1216.
Parra, M., Moscardelli, L., and Lorente, M.A. 2003. Late Cretaceous anoxia and lateral microfacies changes in the Tres Esquinas Member, La Luna Formation, Western Venezuela. Palaios, 18: 321-333.
Pedraza, P., and Ramírez, Y. 2011. Catatumbo Basin. ANH-Fondo Editorial Universidad EAFIT, Medellín, 135p.
Petters, V. 1955. Development of Upper Cretaceous foraminiferal faunas in Colombia. Journal of Paleontology, 29(2): 212-225.
Premoli Silva, I., and Verga, D. 2011. Practical manual of Cretaceous planktonic foraminifera. New Editing by Marie Rose Petrizzo and Isabella Premoli Silva. International School on Planktonic Foraminifera 3rd Course: Cretaceous Planktonic Foraminifera. Perugia, 1-265.
Renz, O. 1959. Estratigrafía del Cretáceo en Venezuela occidental. Boletín de Geología (Venezuela), 5(10): 3-48.
Sellier de Civrieux, J.M. 1952. Estudio de la microfauna de la sección-tipo del Miembro Socuy de la Formación Colón, Distrito Mara, Estado Zulia. Boletín de Geología y Minas (Venezuela), 2(5): 231-310.
Shannon, C.E. 1948. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27: 379-423.
Sohn, I.G. 1961. Techniques for preparation and study of fossil ostracodes. In: Moore, R. (Ed.). Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part Q, Arthropod 3. Crustacea Ostracoda. Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press. pp: Q63-Q70.
Sutton, F.A. 1946. Geology of Maracaibo basin, Venezuela. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 30(10): 1621-1739.
Talukdar, S., and Marcano, F. 1994. Petroleum System of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. The petroleum system-from source to trap: American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) Memoir, 60: 463-481.
Tchegliakova, N., and Mojica, J. 2001. El Senoniano de la barrera de Girardot-Guataquí, Valle Alto del Magdalena, Colombia: Precisiones sobre la estratigrafía y establecimiento de una zonación micropaleontológica. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, 25(94): 37-75.
Thomas, E., Zachos, J.C., and Bralower, T.J. 2000. Deep-sea environments on a warm Earth: latest Paleocene-early Eocene. In: Huber, B., MacLeod, K., and Wing, S. (Eds.). Warm climates in Earth History. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 132-160.
Vergara, L. 1994. Stratigraphic, micropaleontologic and organic geochemical relation in the Cretaceous of the Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Giessener Geologische Schriften, 50. Giessen, 179p.
Villamil, T., and Arango, C. 1998. Integrated stratigraphy of latest Cenomanian and early Turonian facies of Colombia. In: Pindell, J., and Drake, C. (Eds.). Paleogeographic evolution and non-glacial eustacy, Northern South American. SEPM Special Publication 58. Tulsa, pp. 129-159.
Villamil, T., Arango, C., and Hay, W.W. 1999. Plate tectonic paleoceanographic hypothesis for the Cretaceous source rocks and cherts of northern South America. In: Barrera, E., and Johnson, C.C. (Eds.). Evolution of the Cretaceous Ocean-Climate System. Geological Society of America, pp. 191-202.
Villamil, T., and Pindell, J. 1998. Mesozoic paleogeographic evolution of northern South America: Foundations for sequence stratigraphic studies in passive margin strata deposited during non-glacial times. In: Pindell, J., and Drake, C. (Eds.). Paleogeographic evolution and non-glacial eustacy, Northern South America. SEPM Special Publication 58. Tulsa, pp. 238-318.
Yepes, O. 2001. Maastrichtian/Danian dinoflagellate cyst biostratigraphy and biogeography from two equatorial sections in Colombia and Venezuela. Palynology, 25: 217-249.
Ayala-Calvo, R.C., Bayona-Chaparro, G.A., Ojeda-Marulanda, C., Cardona, A., Valencia, V., Padrón, C.E., Yoris, F., Mesa-Salamanca, J., y García, A. 2009. Estratigrafía y procedencia de las unidades comprendidas entre el Campaniano y el Paleógeno en la subcuenca de Cesar: aportes a la evolución tectónica del área. Geología Colombiana, 34: 3-33.
Bolli, H.M., Beckmann, J.P., and Saunders, J.B. 1994. Benthic foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the South Caribbean region. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 411p.
Bürgl, H., y Dumit, Y. 1954. El Cretáceo Superior en la región de Girardot. Boletín Geológico, 2: 23-48.
Caron, M. 1985. Cretaceous planktic foraminifera. In: Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J., and Perch- Nielsen, K. (Eds.). Plankton Stratigraphy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 17-86.
Castillo, M.V., and Mann, P. 2006. Cretaceous to Holocene structural and stratigraphic development in south Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, inferred from well and three-dimensional seismic data. AAPG Bulletin, 90(4): 529-565.
Clavijo, J. 1994. Mapa geológico generalizado del Departamento de Norte de Santander. Escala 1:250.00. Memoria Explicativa. Bucaramanga: INGEOMINAS.
Cooney, P.M., and Lorente, M.A. 2009. A structuring event of Campanian age in western Venezuela, interpreted from seismic and paleontological data. Geological Society Special Publications, 328: 687-703.
Corliss, B.H., and Chen, C. 1988. Morphotype patterns of Norwegian Sea deep-sea benthic foraminifera and ecological implications. Geology, 16(8): 716-719.
Cushman, J.A., and Hedberg, H.D. 1930. Notes on some foraminifera from Venezuela and Colombia. Contributions from the Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research, 6: 64-69.
Cushman, J.A., and Hedberg, H.D. 1941. Upper Cretaceous foraminifera from Santander del Norte, Colombia. Contributions from the Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research, 17: 79-100.
De Romero, L.M., and Galea-Alvarez, F.A. 1995. Campanian Bolivinoides and microfacies from Luna Formation, western Venezuela. Marine Micropaleontology, 26(1-4): 385-404.
Dubicka, Z., and Peryt, D. 2016. Bolivinoides (Benthic foraminifera) from the Upper Cretaceous of Poland and western Ukraine: Taxonomy, evolutionary changes and stratigraphic significance. Journal of Foraminiferal Research, 46(1): 75-94.
Erlich, R.N., Macsotay, O., Nederbragt, A.J., Palmer-Koleman, S.E., and Lorente, M.A. 1999. Paleoecology, paleogeography, and depositional environments of the Upper Cretaceous rocks of Western Venezuela. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 153(1-4): 203-238.
Frizzell, D.L. 1954. Handbook of Cretaceous Foraminifera of Texas. University of Texas Press. Austin, 232p.
Gandolfi, R. 1955. The genus Globotruncana in northeastern Colombia. Bulletin of American Paleontology, 30(155): 1-20.
Georgescu, M.D. 2005. On the systematics of rugoglobigerinids (planktonic foraminifera, late Cretaceous). Studia Geologica Polonica, 124: 87-97.
Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.D., and Ogg, G.M. 2012. The geologic time scale 2012. Elsevier. Amsterdam, 1176p.
Guerrero, J., Sarmiento, G., and Navarrete, R.E. 2000. The Stratigraphy of the W side of the Cretaceous Colombian basin in the Upper Magdalena Valley. Reevaluation of selected areas and type localities including Aipe, Guaduas, Ortega, and Piedras. Geología Colombiana, 25: 45-110.
Hammer, O., Harper, D.A.T., and Ryan, P.D. 2001. PAST: paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electrononica, 4(1): 1-9.
Hayek, L.A.C., and Buzas, M.A. 1997. Surveying natural populations. Columbia University Press. Nueva York, 562p.
Hedberg, H.D., and Sass, L.C. 1937. Synopsis of the geologic formations of the western part of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Boletín de Geología y Minas (Venezuela), 1(2-4): 73-112.
Jorissen, F.J., De Stigter H.C., and Widmark, J.G.V. 1995. A conceptual model explaining benthic foraminiferal microhabitats. Marine Micropaleontology, 26(1-4): 3-15.
Jorissen, F.J., Fontanier, C., and Thomas, E. 2007. Paleoceanographical indicators based on deep-sea benthic foraminiferal assemblage characteristics. Developments in Marine Geology, 1: 263-325.
Julivert, M. 1968. Lexique stratigraphique international. Vol 5. Amérique Latine, Fasc. 4a Colombie. Paris, 651p.
Kehrer, L. 1937. Some observations on Cretaceous and Pre-cretaceous beds in the south western and northern-central parts of Venezuela. Boletín de Geología y Minas (Venezuela), 1(2-4): 47-70.
Koutsoukos, E.A.M, and Merrick, K.A. 1986. Foraminiferal paleoenvironments from the Barremian to Maastrichtian of Trinidad, West Indies. I Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, pp. 85-101.
Koutsoukos, E.A.M., and Hart, M.B. 1990. Cretaceous foraminiferal morphogroup distribution patterns, paleocommunities and trophic structures: A case study from the Sergipe Basin, Brazil. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences, 81: 221-246.
Koutsoukos, E.A.M. 1992. Late aptian to maastrichtian foraminiferal biogeography and palaeoceanography of the Sergipe Basin, Brazil. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 92(3-4): 295-324.
Kugler, H.G., and Bolli, H.M. 1967. Cretaceous biostratigraphy in Trinidad. Boletín Informativo, Asociación Venezolana de Geología, Minería y Petróleos, 10: 209-236.
Loeblich, A.R. Jr., and Tappan, H. 1988. Foraminiferal genera and their classification. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, 970p.
Loeblich, A.R. Jr., Tappan, H., Beckmann, J.P., Bolli, H.M., Montarano G.E., and Troelsen, J. 1957. Studies in Foraminifera. Smithsonian Institution. Washington D.C., 323p.
Lugo, J., and Mann, P. 1995. Jurassic–Eocene tectonic evolution of Maracaibo basin, Venezuela. AAPG Memoir, 62: 699-725.
Magurran, A.E. 2004. Measuring Biological Diversity. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford, 260p.
Mann, P., Escalona, A., and Castillo, M.V. 2006. Regional geologic and tectonic setting of the Maracaibo supergiant basin, western Venezuela. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 90(4): 445-477.
Martínez, R. J.I. 1989. Foraminiferal bioestratigraphy and paleoenvironments of the Maastrichtian Colon mudstones of Northern South America. Micropaleontology, 35(2): 97-113.
Martínez, J.I. 2003. The Paleoecology of late Cretaceous upwelling events from the Upper Magdalena Basin, Colombia. Palaios, 18(4-5): 305-320.
Martínez, J.I., and Hernández, R. 1992. Evolution and drowning of the late cretaceous Venezuelan carbonate platform. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 5(2): 197-210.
Murray, J.W. 2006. Ecology and applications of benthic foraminifera. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 426p.
Nederbragt, A. 1991. Late Cretaceous biostratigraphy and development of Heterohelicidae (planktic foraminifera). Micropaleontology, 37(4): 329-372.
Notestein, F., Hubman, C., and Bowler, J. 1944. Geology of the Barco Concession, Republic of Colombia, South America. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 55(10): 1165-1216.
Parra, M., Moscardelli, L., and Lorente, M.A. 2003. Late Cretaceous anoxia and lateral microfacies changes in the Tres Esquinas Member, La Luna Formation, Western Venezuela. Palaios, 18: 321-333.
Pedraza, P., and Ramírez, Y. 2011. Catatumbo Basin. ANH-Fondo Editorial Universidad EAFIT, Medellín, 135p.
Petters, V. 1955. Development of Upper Cretaceous foraminiferal faunas in Colombia. Journal of Paleontology, 29(2): 212-225.
Premoli Silva, I., and Verga, D. 2011. Practical manual of Cretaceous planktonic foraminifera. New Editing by Marie Rose Petrizzo and Isabella Premoli Silva. International School on Planktonic Foraminifera 3rd Course: Cretaceous Planktonic Foraminifera. Perugia, 1-265.
Renz, O. 1959. Estratigrafía del Cretáceo en Venezuela occidental. Boletín de Geología (Venezuela), 5(10): 3-48.
Sellier de Civrieux, J.M. 1952. Estudio de la microfauna de la sección-tipo del Miembro Socuy de la Formación Colón, Distrito Mara, Estado Zulia. Boletín de Geología y Minas (Venezuela), 2(5): 231-310.
Shannon, C.E. 1948. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27: 379-423.
Sohn, I.G. 1961. Techniques for preparation and study of fossil ostracodes. In: Moore, R. (Ed.). Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part Q, Arthropod 3. Crustacea Ostracoda. Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press. pp: Q63-Q70.
Sutton, F.A. 1946. Geology of Maracaibo basin, Venezuela. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 30(10): 1621-1739.
Talukdar, S., and Marcano, F. 1994. Petroleum System of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. The petroleum system-from source to trap: American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) Memoir, 60: 463-481.
Tchegliakova, N., and Mojica, J. 2001. El Senoniano de la barrera de Girardot-Guataquí, Valle Alto del Magdalena, Colombia: Precisiones sobre la estratigrafía y establecimiento de una zonación micropaleontológica. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, 25(94): 37-75.
Thomas, E., Zachos, J.C., and Bralower, T.J. 2000. Deep-sea environments on a warm Earth: latest Paleocene-early Eocene. In: Huber, B., MacLeod, K., and Wing, S. (Eds.). Warm climates in Earth History. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 132-160.
Vergara, L. 1994. Stratigraphic, micropaleontologic and organic geochemical relation in the Cretaceous of the Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Giessener Geologische Schriften, 50. Giessen, 179p.
Villamil, T., and Arango, C. 1998. Integrated stratigraphy of latest Cenomanian and early Turonian facies of Colombia. In: Pindell, J., and Drake, C. (Eds.). Paleogeographic evolution and non-glacial eustacy, Northern South American. SEPM Special Publication 58. Tulsa, pp. 129-159.
Villamil, T., Arango, C., and Hay, W.W. 1999. Plate tectonic paleoceanographic hypothesis for the Cretaceous source rocks and cherts of northern South America. In: Barrera, E., and Johnson, C.C. (Eds.). Evolution of the Cretaceous Ocean-Climate System. Geological Society of America, pp. 191-202.
Villamil, T., and Pindell, J. 1998. Mesozoic paleogeographic evolution of northern South America: Foundations for sequence stratigraphic studies in passive margin strata deposited during non-glacial times. In: Pindell, J., and Drake, C. (Eds.). Paleogeographic evolution and non-glacial eustacy, Northern South America. SEPM Special Publication 58. Tulsa, pp. 238-318.
Yepes, O. 2001. Maastrichtian/Danian dinoflagellate cyst biostratigraphy and biogeography from two equatorial sections in Colombia and Venezuela. Palynology, 25: 217-249.