Artículos
Publicado 2010-05-26
Palabras clave
- Técnicas de identificación modal,
- vibraciones ambientales,
- puentes,
- daño estructural
Cómo citar
Gómez Araujo, I., Maldonado Rondón, E., & Chio Cho, G. (2010). Pruebas de vibración ambiental en puentes. Revista UIS Ingenierías, 9(1), 55–68. Recuperado a partir de https://revistas.uis.edu.co/index.php/revistauisingenierias/article/view/1056
Resumen
El diseño, construcción y mantenimiento de estructuras especiales como los puentes, han generado la necesidad de desarrollar pruebas experimentales apropiadas que permitan identificar con exactitud sus propiedades estructurales más importantes (estáticas y dinámicas). La dificultad para utilizar pruebas con vibración forzada o excitación en una forma controlada generó la búsqueda de otros métodos de identificación de mayor aplicabilidad como la utilización de excitaciones debidas a las vibraciones ambientales. Las pruebas de vibraciones ambientales (AVT) han demostrado buenos resultados a nivel de los puentes en el contexto nacional e internacional, de aquí el interés en su estudio. En este documento se presenta un estudio de los principales aspectos relacionados con la aplicación de las AVT, resaltando diferentes temáticas como las mediciones de campo, métodos existentes de identificación modal con vibraciones ambientales y calibración de modelos en elementos fnitos a partir de datos experimentales.
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Referencias
A. Cunha, E. Caetano, F. Magalhães and C. Moutinho. From input-output to output-only modal identification of civil engineering structures, 1st International Operational Modal Analysis Conference IOMAC, Copenhaga, Dinamarca, 2006.
R. Brinker, P. Andersen, Ambient response analysis modal for large structures, Sixth international, congress on sound and vibration, 5-8, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1999.
Y. Zhi-yuan, W. Feng-yuan and Z. Chang-sheng, A method of online damage identification for structures based on ambient vibration, Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, English Edition, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2005, pp 269-276.
R. Cantieni. Experimental methods used in system identification of civil engineering structures, 2° Workshop: Problemi di vibrazioni nelle strutture civili e nelle costruzioni meccaniche, Perugia, pp. 10-11, Giugno, 2004.
C. R. Farrar y G. H. James III. System identification from ambient vibration measurement on a bridge, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 205(1), 1997, pp. 1–18.
S. K. Thakkar. G. Ghosh y Y. Singh, Y. Structural damage identification and health monitoring of bridges, Proc. National Conference on Advances in Bridge Engineering, March 24-25, 2006, Roorkee, pp. 11-30.
O. S. Salawu, Detection of structural damage through changes in frequency: a review, Engineering Structures, Vol. 19, No. 9, 1997, pp. 718-723.
J. H. Kim, H. S. Jeon y C. W. Lee. Application of the modal assurance criteria for detecting and location structural faults, Proc. 10th International Modal Analysis Conference, pp. 536-540, 1992.
A. K. Pandey, M. Biswas y M. Samman. Damage detection from changes in curvature mode shapes, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 145 (2), 1991, pp. 321-332.
A. E. Aktan, K. L. Lee, C. Chuntavan, y T. Aksel, Modal testing for structural identification and condition assessment of constructed facilities, Proc. of 12th International Modal Analysis Conference, pp. 462-468, 1994.
R. L. Mayes, An experimental algorithm for detecting damage applied to the I-40 Bridge over the Rio Grande, Proc. 13th International Modal Analysis Conference, pp. 219-225, 1995.
H. G. Natke y J. T. P. Yao, Proceeding of the International Workshop on Structural Safety Evaluation Based on System Identification Approaches, Vieweg, Brunswick, Germany, 1998.
C. M. Bishop. Neural network and their applications, Review of Scientific Instrumentation, Vol. 65 (6), 1994, pp. 1803-1832.
H. Zhu. Y. Sima and J. Tang, Damage detection in structures using modified back-propagation neural networks, Acta mechanica solida sinica, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp 358-370,2002.
Y. Fujino, M. Abe. Structural health monitoring in civil infrastructures and R&D of SHE of bridges at the University of Tokyo, Proceedings of 17th U.S.-Japan Bridge Engineering Workshop, November 12-14, , 2001, P.W.R.I., Tsukuba City, Japan.
D. Muria, A. R. Sánchez, R. Gómez, G. Rodríguez, and M. A. Mendoza, Pruebas experimentales en las vías elevadas de la ciudad de México. Congreso Chileno de Sismología e Ingeniería Antisísmica, IX Jornadas, Concepción, Chile, 2005.
H. Sohn, C. R. Farrar, F. M. Hemez, D. D. Shunk, D. W. Stinemates, and B. R. Nadler, A review of structural health monitoring literature: 1996–2001, Los Alamos National Laboratory Report, LA-13976-MS, 2003.
R. Cantieni. Experimental methods used in system identification of civil engineering structures. In: Proceedings of 1st Int. operational modal analysis conference (IOMAC), pp. 249-260, Copenaghen, Denmark, 2005.
Wei-Xin Ren, Wael Zatar, Issam E. Harik, Ambient vibration-based seismic evaluation of a continuous girder bridge, Engineering Structures 26, 2004, pp. 631-640.
C. Gentile, N. Gallino, Ambient vibration testing and structural evaluation of an historic suspension footbridge. Advances in Engineering Software, 2007.
F. Magalhães, E. Caetano and A. Cunha. Operational modal analysis of the Braga Sports Stadium Suspended Roof, Proc. 24th Int. Modal Analysis Conference, St. Louis, USA, 2006.
E. Caetano and A. Cunha. Experimental and numerical assessment of the dynamic behaviour of a Stress-Ribbon Bridge, Structural Concrete, Journal of FIB, 5, No 1, 2004, pp. 29-38.
Wei-Xin Ren., Xue-Lin Penga and You-Qin Lina, Experimental and analytical studies on dynamic characteristics of a large span cable-stayed bridge, Engineering Structures 27, 2005, pp. 535–548.
S. W. Doebling and C. R. Farrar. Using statistical analysis to enhance modal-based damage identification. In Proc. DAMAS 97: structural damage assessment using advanced signal processing procedures, University of Shef.eld, UK, pp. 199–210, 1997.
S. Hoon. Effects of environmental and operational variability on structural health monitoring, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A365, pp. 539–560, 2007.
Qin Pan, Kirk A. Grimmelsman, John Prader y A. Emin Aktan, Evaluation of the quality of ambient vibration monitoring data from the Henry Hudson Bridge. Department of Civil, Architectural & Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, 2005.
Qin Pan. System identification of constructed Civil Engineering structures and uncertainty, [PhD thesis]. Drexel University, 2007.
Suleyman Korhan Ciloglu, The impact of uncertainty in operational modal analysis for structural identification of constructed systems, [PhD thesis]. Drexel University, 2006.
K. A. Petsounis and S. D. Fassois, Parametric time-domain methods for the identification of vibrating structures—A critical comparison and assessments, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 15(6), 2001, 1031.
P. Andersen, R. Brinker, B. Peeter, G. De Roeck, L. Hermans and C. Kramer. Comparison ff system identification methods using ambient bridge test data, Department of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg University, 1999.
A. J. Felber. Development of a hybrid bridge evaluation system, [PhD thesis]. Department of Civil Engineering,University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 1993.
J. S. Bendat, and A. G. Piersol. Engineering applications of correlation and spectral analysis, 2nd edition, JohnWiley & Sons, New York, USA, 1993.
A. Castillo and R. Boroshek. Uso del método de frecuencia no paramétrica y SSI para identificación de propiedades modales de edificios. Congreso Chileno de Sismología e Ingeniería Antisísmica, IX Jornadas, Concepción Chile, 2005.
T. Tanaka, S. Yoshizawa, Y. Osawa and T. Morishita. Period and damping of vibration in actual building modes, Bull of Seism Soc. Am, 56, 1996, pp. 793-813.
B. Peeters. System identification and damage detection in civil engineering structures. [PhD thesis]. Heverlee, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, 2000.
P. Van Overschee and B. De Moor. Subspace identification for linear systems: theory - implementation - applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1996.
P. Van Overschee and B. De Moor. Subspace algorithms for the stochastic identification problem, Proc. of the30th IEEE Conf. on Decision and Control, pp. 1321-1326, Brighton, UK, 1991.
P. Valdes. Identificación paramétrica en sistemas estructurales utilizando el método del sub espacio estocástico. Memoria para optar el título de Ingeniero Civil. Universidad de Chile Santiago de Chile, 2004.
R. Brincker, L. Zhang and P. Andersen. Modal identification from ambient responses using frequency domain decomposition, Proc. of the 18th International Modal Analysis Conference, 2000.
R. Brincker, P. Andersen y N. Møller. Output-only modal testing of a car body subject to engine excitation, Proc. of the 18th International Modal Analysis Conference, 2000.
S. Gade, N. Møller, H. Herlufsen y H. Konstantin-Hansen. Frequency domain techniques for operational modal analysis, Proceedings of IOMAC Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2005.
J. S. Bendat, and A. G. Piersol, Random data, Analysis and measurement procedures, John Wiley and Sons, 1986.
R. Brincker, and P. Andersen, ARMA (Auto Regressive Moving Average) Models in modal space, Proc. of the 17th International Modal Analysis Conference, 1999.
S. Gade, N. Møller, H. Herlufsen, and H. Konstantin-Hansen, Frequency domain techniques for pperational modal analysis, Proceedings of IOMAC Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2005
R. J. Allemang, The Modal Assurance Criterion – Twenty Years of Use and Abuse, Journals Sound And Vibration, Vol. 262, No. 3, 2003, pp. 651-675.
A. Cunha, E. Caetano, and R. Delgado, Dynamic tests on a large cable-stayed bridge. An Efficient Approach, Journal Bridge Engineering, ASCE, Vol.6, No.1, 2001, pp. 54-62.
A. Cunha, and R. Calçada, Ambient vibration test of a steel trussed arch bridge, Proc. of the 18th Int. Modal Analysis Conference, San Antonio, Texas, 2000.
J. M. W. Brownjohn, and Pin-Qi Xia, Dynamic assessment of curved cable- stayed bridge by model updating, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 2, 2000, pp. 252-260.
F. N. Catbas, S. K. Ciloglu, O. Hasancebi, K. Grimmelsman, and A. E. Aktan, Limitations in structural identification of large constructed structures. Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 133, No. 8, 2007, pp. 1051-1066.
C. Gentile, and A. Saisi, Dynamic-based F.E. model updating to evaluate damage in masonry towers, Proceedings of the 4th International Seminar on Structural analysis of Historical Constructions, Padova, Italy, Vol. 1, 2004, pp. 439-449.
B. M. Douglas and W. H. Dynamic tests and system identification of bridges. ASCE J Struct Div, Vol. 108, No. 10, 1982, pp. 2295–312.
A. Teughels, Inverse modelling of civil engineering structures based on operational modal data. [Ph.D. Thesis]. K.U. Leuven, Belgium, 2003.
M. I. Friswell, and J. E. Mottershead, Finite element model updating in structural dynamics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wales Swansea, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 286 p. 1995.
E. Reynders, M. Schevenels, G. De Roeck, Guido De R. and Macec. A Matlab Toolbox for experimental and operational modal analysis, Report BWM, 2008.
M. O. Moroni, and M. Sarrazin, Respuesta sísmica de puentes con sistemas de protección sísmica, Congreso Chileno de Sismología e Ingeniería Antisísmica, IX Jornadas, Concepción, Chile, 2005.
M. W. Halling, A. Ball, R. Esplin, K-H. Hsieh, Modal analysis and modeling of highway bridges, 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper No. 2996, Vancouver, Canada, 2004.
E. Muñoz, F. Núñez, J. A. Rodríguez, A. Ramos, C. Otálora., Vulnerabilidad sísmica y capacidad de carga de un puente en acero basado en confiabilidad estructural,Revista Ingeniería de Construcción, Vol. 23, No. 3, 2008, pp. 125- 144.
P. Thomson, J. Marulanda C. and J. Marulanda A. Monitoreo de Salud Estructural, Colombia, Ingeniería y Competitividad, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2000, pp. 40 – 46.
P. Thomson, N. Galindez, J. Marulanda, A. Orozco, J. Caicedo, S. Dyke, Implementation of A Modal Identification Methodology on the Pereira-Dosquebradas Viaduct, 16th Asce Engineering Mechanics Conference, Estados Unidos, 2003.
P. Thomson, and J. Marulanda C, Sistema de MSE del viaducto Pereira-Dosquebradas, IV Semana de la Ingeniería, I Simposio de Investigaciones, Colombia, 2005.
R. Brinker, P. Andersen, Ambient response analysis modal for large structures, Sixth international, congress on sound and vibration, 5-8, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1999.
Y. Zhi-yuan, W. Feng-yuan and Z. Chang-sheng, A method of online damage identification for structures based on ambient vibration, Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, English Edition, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2005, pp 269-276.
R. Cantieni. Experimental methods used in system identification of civil engineering structures, 2° Workshop: Problemi di vibrazioni nelle strutture civili e nelle costruzioni meccaniche, Perugia, pp. 10-11, Giugno, 2004.
C. R. Farrar y G. H. James III. System identification from ambient vibration measurement on a bridge, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 205(1), 1997, pp. 1–18.
S. K. Thakkar. G. Ghosh y Y. Singh, Y. Structural damage identification and health monitoring of bridges, Proc. National Conference on Advances in Bridge Engineering, March 24-25, 2006, Roorkee, pp. 11-30.
O. S. Salawu, Detection of structural damage through changes in frequency: a review, Engineering Structures, Vol. 19, No. 9, 1997, pp. 718-723.
J. H. Kim, H. S. Jeon y C. W. Lee. Application of the modal assurance criteria for detecting and location structural faults, Proc. 10th International Modal Analysis Conference, pp. 536-540, 1992.
A. K. Pandey, M. Biswas y M. Samman. Damage detection from changes in curvature mode shapes, Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 145 (2), 1991, pp. 321-332.
A. E. Aktan, K. L. Lee, C. Chuntavan, y T. Aksel, Modal testing for structural identification and condition assessment of constructed facilities, Proc. of 12th International Modal Analysis Conference, pp. 462-468, 1994.
R. L. Mayes, An experimental algorithm for detecting damage applied to the I-40 Bridge over the Rio Grande, Proc. 13th International Modal Analysis Conference, pp. 219-225, 1995.
H. G. Natke y J. T. P. Yao, Proceeding of the International Workshop on Structural Safety Evaluation Based on System Identification Approaches, Vieweg, Brunswick, Germany, 1998.
C. M. Bishop. Neural network and their applications, Review of Scientific Instrumentation, Vol. 65 (6), 1994, pp. 1803-1832.
H. Zhu. Y. Sima and J. Tang, Damage detection in structures using modified back-propagation neural networks, Acta mechanica solida sinica, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp 358-370,2002.
Y. Fujino, M. Abe. Structural health monitoring in civil infrastructures and R&D of SHE of bridges at the University of Tokyo, Proceedings of 17th U.S.-Japan Bridge Engineering Workshop, November 12-14, , 2001, P.W.R.I., Tsukuba City, Japan.
D. Muria, A. R. Sánchez, R. Gómez, G. Rodríguez, and M. A. Mendoza, Pruebas experimentales en las vías elevadas de la ciudad de México. Congreso Chileno de Sismología e Ingeniería Antisísmica, IX Jornadas, Concepción, Chile, 2005.
H. Sohn, C. R. Farrar, F. M. Hemez, D. D. Shunk, D. W. Stinemates, and B. R. Nadler, A review of structural health monitoring literature: 1996–2001, Los Alamos National Laboratory Report, LA-13976-MS, 2003.
R. Cantieni. Experimental methods used in system identification of civil engineering structures. In: Proceedings of 1st Int. operational modal analysis conference (IOMAC), pp. 249-260, Copenaghen, Denmark, 2005.
Wei-Xin Ren, Wael Zatar, Issam E. Harik, Ambient vibration-based seismic evaluation of a continuous girder bridge, Engineering Structures 26, 2004, pp. 631-640.
C. Gentile, N. Gallino, Ambient vibration testing and structural evaluation of an historic suspension footbridge. Advances in Engineering Software, 2007.
F. Magalhães, E. Caetano and A. Cunha. Operational modal analysis of the Braga Sports Stadium Suspended Roof, Proc. 24th Int. Modal Analysis Conference, St. Louis, USA, 2006.
E. Caetano and A. Cunha. Experimental and numerical assessment of the dynamic behaviour of a Stress-Ribbon Bridge, Structural Concrete, Journal of FIB, 5, No 1, 2004, pp. 29-38.
Wei-Xin Ren., Xue-Lin Penga and You-Qin Lina, Experimental and analytical studies on dynamic characteristics of a large span cable-stayed bridge, Engineering Structures 27, 2005, pp. 535–548.
S. W. Doebling and C. R. Farrar. Using statistical analysis to enhance modal-based damage identification. In Proc. DAMAS 97: structural damage assessment using advanced signal processing procedures, University of Shef.eld, UK, pp. 199–210, 1997.
S. Hoon. Effects of environmental and operational variability on structural health monitoring, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A365, pp. 539–560, 2007.
Qin Pan, Kirk A. Grimmelsman, John Prader y A. Emin Aktan, Evaluation of the quality of ambient vibration monitoring data from the Henry Hudson Bridge. Department of Civil, Architectural & Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, 2005.
Qin Pan. System identification of constructed Civil Engineering structures and uncertainty, [PhD thesis]. Drexel University, 2007.
Suleyman Korhan Ciloglu, The impact of uncertainty in operational modal analysis for structural identification of constructed systems, [PhD thesis]. Drexel University, 2006.
K. A. Petsounis and S. D. Fassois, Parametric time-domain methods for the identification of vibrating structures—A critical comparison and assessments, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 15(6), 2001, 1031.
P. Andersen, R. Brinker, B. Peeter, G. De Roeck, L. Hermans and C. Kramer. Comparison ff system identification methods using ambient bridge test data, Department of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg University, 1999.
A. J. Felber. Development of a hybrid bridge evaluation system, [PhD thesis]. Department of Civil Engineering,University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 1993.
J. S. Bendat, and A. G. Piersol. Engineering applications of correlation and spectral analysis, 2nd edition, JohnWiley & Sons, New York, USA, 1993.
A. Castillo and R. Boroshek. Uso del método de frecuencia no paramétrica y SSI para identificación de propiedades modales de edificios. Congreso Chileno de Sismología e Ingeniería Antisísmica, IX Jornadas, Concepción Chile, 2005.
T. Tanaka, S. Yoshizawa, Y. Osawa and T. Morishita. Period and damping of vibration in actual building modes, Bull of Seism Soc. Am, 56, 1996, pp. 793-813.
B. Peeters. System identification and damage detection in civil engineering structures. [PhD thesis]. Heverlee, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, 2000.
P. Van Overschee and B. De Moor. Subspace identification for linear systems: theory - implementation - applications, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1996.
P. Van Overschee and B. De Moor. Subspace algorithms for the stochastic identification problem, Proc. of the30th IEEE Conf. on Decision and Control, pp. 1321-1326, Brighton, UK, 1991.
P. Valdes. Identificación paramétrica en sistemas estructurales utilizando el método del sub espacio estocástico. Memoria para optar el título de Ingeniero Civil. Universidad de Chile Santiago de Chile, 2004.
R. Brincker, L. Zhang and P. Andersen. Modal identification from ambient responses using frequency domain decomposition, Proc. of the 18th International Modal Analysis Conference, 2000.
R. Brincker, P. Andersen y N. Møller. Output-only modal testing of a car body subject to engine excitation, Proc. of the 18th International Modal Analysis Conference, 2000.
S. Gade, N. Møller, H. Herlufsen y H. Konstantin-Hansen. Frequency domain techniques for operational modal analysis, Proceedings of IOMAC Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2005.
J. S. Bendat, and A. G. Piersol, Random data, Analysis and measurement procedures, John Wiley and Sons, 1986.
R. Brincker, and P. Andersen, ARMA (Auto Regressive Moving Average) Models in modal space, Proc. of the 17th International Modal Analysis Conference, 1999.
S. Gade, N. Møller, H. Herlufsen, and H. Konstantin-Hansen, Frequency domain techniques for pperational modal analysis, Proceedings of IOMAC Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2005
R. J. Allemang, The Modal Assurance Criterion – Twenty Years of Use and Abuse, Journals Sound And Vibration, Vol. 262, No. 3, 2003, pp. 651-675.
A. Cunha, E. Caetano, and R. Delgado, Dynamic tests on a large cable-stayed bridge. An Efficient Approach, Journal Bridge Engineering, ASCE, Vol.6, No.1, 2001, pp. 54-62.
A. Cunha, and R. Calçada, Ambient vibration test of a steel trussed arch bridge, Proc. of the 18th Int. Modal Analysis Conference, San Antonio, Texas, 2000.
J. M. W. Brownjohn, and Pin-Qi Xia, Dynamic assessment of curved cable- stayed bridge by model updating, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 2, 2000, pp. 252-260.
F. N. Catbas, S. K. Ciloglu, O. Hasancebi, K. Grimmelsman, and A. E. Aktan, Limitations in structural identification of large constructed structures. Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 133, No. 8, 2007, pp. 1051-1066.
C. Gentile, and A. Saisi, Dynamic-based F.E. model updating to evaluate damage in masonry towers, Proceedings of the 4th International Seminar on Structural analysis of Historical Constructions, Padova, Italy, Vol. 1, 2004, pp. 439-449.
B. M. Douglas and W. H. Dynamic tests and system identification of bridges. ASCE J Struct Div, Vol. 108, No. 10, 1982, pp. 2295–312.
A. Teughels, Inverse modelling of civil engineering structures based on operational modal data. [Ph.D. Thesis]. K.U. Leuven, Belgium, 2003.
M. I. Friswell, and J. E. Mottershead, Finite element model updating in structural dynamics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wales Swansea, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 286 p. 1995.
E. Reynders, M. Schevenels, G. De Roeck, Guido De R. and Macec. A Matlab Toolbox for experimental and operational modal analysis, Report BWM, 2008.
M. O. Moroni, and M. Sarrazin, Respuesta sísmica de puentes con sistemas de protección sísmica, Congreso Chileno de Sismología e Ingeniería Antisísmica, IX Jornadas, Concepción, Chile, 2005.
M. W. Halling, A. Ball, R. Esplin, K-H. Hsieh, Modal analysis and modeling of highway bridges, 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper No. 2996, Vancouver, Canada, 2004.
E. Muñoz, F. Núñez, J. A. Rodríguez, A. Ramos, C. Otálora., Vulnerabilidad sísmica y capacidad de carga de un puente en acero basado en confiabilidad estructural,Revista Ingeniería de Construcción, Vol. 23, No. 3, 2008, pp. 125- 144.
P. Thomson, J. Marulanda C. and J. Marulanda A. Monitoreo de Salud Estructural, Colombia, Ingeniería y Competitividad, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2000, pp. 40 – 46.
P. Thomson, N. Galindez, J. Marulanda, A. Orozco, J. Caicedo, S. Dyke, Implementation of A Modal Identification Methodology on the Pereira-Dosquebradas Viaduct, 16th Asce Engineering Mechanics Conference, Estados Unidos, 2003.
P. Thomson, and J. Marulanda C, Sistema de MSE del viaducto Pereira-Dosquebradas, IV Semana de la Ingeniería, I Simposio de Investigaciones, Colombia, 2005.