Articles
Landslide hazard assessment triggered by rainfall in a Colombian Andes region estimating spatial, temporal and magnitude probability
Edier Aristizábal- Sandra López
- Oscar Sánchez
- Mariana Vásquez
- Felipe Rincón
- Diana Ruiz-Vásquez
- Sebastián Restrepo
- Johan Sebastián Valencia
Published 2019-09-30
Keywords
- hazard,
- rainfall-induced landslide,
- Weight of Evidence
How to Cite
Aristizábal, E., López, S., Sánchez, O., Vásquez, M., Rincón, F., Ruiz-Vásquez, D., Restrepo, S., & Valencia, J. S. (2019). Landslide hazard assessment triggered by rainfall in a Colombian Andes region estimating spatial, temporal and magnitude probability. Boletín De Geología, 41(3), 85–105. https://doi.org/10.18273/revbol.v41n3-2019004
Altmetrics
Abstract
The hazard generated by rainfall-induced landslides causes a larger number of victims each year in mountainous and tropical environments, such as the Colombia Andes. The aim of this study is to generate hazard maps for rainfall-induced landslides in the Aburrá Valley, located in the north of the Colombia Andes, which is occupied by a huge number of people living in landside-prone slopes. This paper presents not just the quantitative analysis of landslide hazard with the estimation of space, temporal, and magnitude probability, but also the verification and validation of the results. In terms of the space probability, the Weight of Evidence (WoE) method was used; for the temporal probability, rainfall thresholds for landslide occurrence and their daily temporal probability were identified. Finally, for magnitude probability, the magnitude-frequency curve was used according to the multitemporal inventory of landslide elaborated. The hazard map shows that the high hazard corresponds to 75% of the landslides occurring in 37% of the study area. The medium hazard corresponds to 28% of the landslide within 56% of the study area. Lastly, the low hazard corresponds to 25% of the landslide within 7% of in the study area.
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References
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AMVA. (2007). Microzonificación sísmica detallada de los municipios de Barbosa, Girardota, Copacabana, Sabaneta, La Estrella, Caldas y Envigado. 745 p. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá.
AMVA-UNAL. (2009). Amenaza, vulnerabilidad y riesgo por movimientos en masa, avenidas torrenciales e inundaciones en el Valle de Aburrá - Libro I. 124 p. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá – Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
AMVA-UNAL. (2018). Estudios básicos de amenaza por movimientos en masa, inundaciones y avenidas torrenciales en los municipios de Caldas, La Estrella, Envigado, Itagüí, Bello, Copacabana y Barbosa, para la incorporación de la gestión del riesgo en la planificación territorial. Informe técnico. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá – Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
Aristizábal, E., y Gómez, J. (2007). Inventario de emergencias y desastres en el Valle de Aburrá. Originados por fenómenos naturales y antrópicos en el periodo 1880-2007. Gestión y Ambiente, 10(2), 17-30.
Aristizábal, E., González, T., Montoya, J., Vélez, J., Martínez, H., and Guerra, A. (2011). Análisis de umbrales empíricos de lluvia para el pronóstico de movimientos en masa en el Valle de Aburrá, Colombia. Revista EIA, 8(15), 95-111.
Bai, S., Wang, J., Thiebes, B., Cheng, C., and Yang, Y. (2014). Analysis of the relationship of landslide occurrence with rainfall: a case study of Wudu County, China. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7(4), 1277-1285. doi: 10.1007/s12517-013-0939-9.
Banco Mundial y GFDRR. (2012). Análisis de la gestión del riesgo de desastres en Colombia: un aporte para la construcción de políticas públicas. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery - Sistema Nacional de Información Para La Gestión Del Riesgo de Desastres. 436 p. Bogotá, Colombia: Banco Mundial.
Cantarino, I., Carrion, M.A., Goerlich, F., and Martínez, V. (2019). A ROC analysis-based classification method for landslide susceptibility maps. Landslides, 16(2), 265-282. doi: 10.1007/s10346-018-1063-4.
Corominas, J. (2000). Landslides and climate. In: Bromhead EN (ed) VIII International Symposium on Landslides Cardiff UK, keynote lectures CDROM 200.
Cruden, D.M., and Varnes, D.J. (1996). Landslide types and processes. In: A.K. Tuner, R.L. Schuster (eds.). Landslides: investigation and mitigation (pp. 36-75). Chapter 3. Transportation research board special report. Vol. 247.
Changnon, S., Pielke, R.Jr., Changnon, D., Sylves, R., and Pulwarty, R. (2000). Human factors explain the increased losses from weather and climate extreme. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 81(3), 437-442.
Chica, A. (1989). Apuntes de geotecnia: cursos de geotecnia y prácticas geotécnicas, Facultad de Minas, Ed. Medellín, Colombia: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
Chung, C.F., and Fabbri, A.G. (1999). Probabilistic prediction models for landslide hazard mapping. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 65(12), 1389-1399.
Chung, C.F., and Fabbri, A.G. (2003). Validation of spatial prediction models for landslide hazard mapping. Natural Hazards, 30(3), 451-472. doi: 10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000007172.62651.2b.
DANE. (2005). Censo 2005. Consultado el 15 de febrero de 2018. www.dane.gov.co/censo/.
Dilley, M., Chen, R., Deichmann, U., Lerner-Lam, A., and Arnold, M. (2005). Natural disaster hotspots. A global risk analysis. Washington: World Bank.
Davis, P.A., and Goodrich, M.T. (1990). A proposed strategy for the validation of ground-water flow and solute transport models. Technical Report, Sandia National Labs. Albuquerque, NM (USA).
Düzgün, H.S.B. and Grimstad, S. (2007). Reliability-based stability analysis and risk assessment for rock slides in Ramnefjell. Proceedings of Applications and Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering ICASP10, Tokyo, Japan.
Eeckhaut, M., and Hervás, J. (2012). Landslide inventories in Europe and policy recommendations for their interoperability and harmonisation. JRC Scientific and Policy Reports, Report EUR 25666.
Fawcett, T. (2006). An introduction to ROC analysis. Pattern Recognation Letters, 27(8), 861-874. doi: 10.1016/j.patrec.2005.10.010.
Flórez, M., Molina, M., y Ramírez, I. (1996). Método cualitativo para la determinación de los niveles de amenaza por movimientos en masa de la ciudad de Medellín, ladera occidental. Alcaldía de Medellín, 90 p.
Glade, T., Crozier, M., and Smith, P. (2000). Applying probability determination to refine landslide-triggering rainfall thresholds using an empirical “Antecedent Daily Rainfall Model”. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 157(6-8), 1059-1079. doi: 10.1007/s000240050017.
Guzzetti, F., Carrara, A., Cardinali, M., and Reichenbach, P. (1999). Landslide hazard evaluation: a review of current techniques and their application in a multi-scale study, Central Italy. Geomorphology, 31(1-4), 181-216. doi: 10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00078-1.
Guzzetti, F., and Tonelli, G. (2004). Information system on hydrological and geomorphological catastrophes in Italy (SICI): a tool for managing landslide and flood hazards. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science, 4(2), 213-232. doi: 10.5194/nhess-4-213-2004.
Guzzetti, F., Peruccacci, S., Rossi, M., and Stark, C.P. (2007). Rainfall thresholds for the initiation of landslides in central and southern Europe. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 98(3-4), 239-267. doi: 10.1007/s00703-007-0262-7
Guzzetti, F., Peruccacci, S., Rossi, M., and Stark, C.P. (2008). The rainfall intensity-duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows: an update. Landslides, 5(1), 3-17. doi: 10.1007/s10346-007-0112-1.
Hermelin, M. (1984). Riesgo geológico en el Valle de Aburrá. Conferencia sobre Riesgos Geológicos en el Valle de Aburrá, Medellín, Colombia.
Ho, J.Y., and Lee, K.T. (2017). Performance evaluation of a physically based model for shallow landslide prediction. Landslides, 14(3), 961-980. doi: 10.1007/s10346-016-0762-y.
Hoppe, P., and Pielke, R.A.Jr. (2006). Climate Change and Disaster Losses Workshop: Understanding and Attributing Trends and Projections. Hohenkammer, Germany, 234 p.
INGEOMINAS. (1990). Zonificación de aptitud del suelo para el uso urbano costado occidental de Medellín. Reporte interno, 91 pp.
Jaiswal, P., van Westen, C., and Jetten, V. (2010). Quantitative landslide hazard assessment along a transportation corridor in southern India. Engineering Geology, 116(3-4), 236-250. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.09.005.
LA RED y OSSO. (2017). DesInventar. Consultado el 25 de septiembre de 2017. http://www.desinventar.org/es/
Liu, C., Frazier, P., and Kumar, L. (2007). Comparative assessment of the measures of thematic classification accuracy. Remote Sensing of Environment, 107(4), 606-616. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2006.10.010.
Malamud, B.D., Turcotte, D. L., Guzzetti, F., and Reichenbach, P. (2004). Landslide inventories and their statistical properties. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 29(6), 687-711. doi: 10.1002/esp.1064.
Morss, R.E., Wilhelmi, O.V., Meehl, G.A., and Dilling, L. (2011). Improving societal outcomes of extreme weather in a changing climate: An integrated perspective. Annual Review of Environment Resources, 36, 1-25. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-060809-100145.
Oh, H.J., and Lee, S. (2011). Landslide susceptibility mapping on Panaon Island, Philippines using a geographic information system. Environmental Earth Science, 62(5), 935-951. doi: 10.1007/s12665-010-0579-2.
OSSO y LA RED. (2009). DesInventar. Sistema de inventario de desastres. Guía Metodológica.
Ozdemir, A., and Altural, T. (2013). A comparative study of frequency ratio, weights of evidence and logistic regression methods for landslide susceptibility mapping: Sultan Mountains, SW Turkey. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 64, 180-197. doi: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.12.014.
Petley, D. (2012). Global patterns of loss of life from landslides. Geology, 40(10), 927-930. doi: 10.1130/G33217.1 .
Regmi, N.G., Giardino, J.R., and Vitek, J.D. (2010). Modeling susceptibility to landslide using the weight of evidence approach: Western Colorado, USA. Geomorphology, 115(1-2), 172-187. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.10.002.
Rodríguez, E.A., Sandoval, J.H., Chaparro, J.L., Medina, E., Ramírez, K.C., Castro, E., Castro, J.A., y Ruiz, G.L. (2017). Guía metodológica para zonificación de amenaza por movimientos en masa a escala 1:25.000. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Bogotá, Colombia.
Sánchez, O., y Aristizábal, E. (2017). Análisis de los impactos por movimientos en masa en Colombia. XVI Congreso Colombiano de Geología, Santa Marta, Colombia.
Sepúlveda, S.A., and Petley, D.N. (2015). Regional trends and controlling factors of fatal landslides in Latin America and the Caribbean. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 15(8), 1821-1833. doi: 10.5194/nhess-15-1821-2015.
SGC. (2015). Guía Metodológica para estudios de Amenaza, Vulnerabilidad y Riesgo por movimientos en masa. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Bogotá, Colombia.
SGC. (2017). SIMMA. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Retrieved from http://simma.sgc.gov.co/#/
Shelmon, R. (1979). Zonas de deslizamientos en los alrededores de Medellín, Antioquia (Colombia). Publicaciones Geológicas Especiales del INGEOMINAS. 45 pp.
Sujatha, E.R., Kumaravel, P., and Rajamanickam, G.V. (2014). Assessing landslide susceptibility using Bayesian probability-based weight of evidence model. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 73(1), 147-161. doi: 10.1007/s10064-013-0537-9.
Tokuhiro, H. (1999). Landslide in Villa Tina, Medellin City, Colombia. In: K. Sassa (ed.). Landslides of the World (pp. 198-201). Japan Landslide Society, Kyoto University Press.
Varnes, D.J. (1984). Landslide hazard zonation: A review of principles and practice. Natural Hazards. Paris: UNESCO.
Van Westen, C.J., Rengers, N., and Soeters, R. (2003). Use of geomorphological information in indirect landslide susceptibility assessment. Natural Hazards, 30(3), 399-419. doi: 10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000007097.42735.9e.
Vega, J.A., and Hidalgo, C.A. (2016). Quantitative risk assessment of landslides triggered by earthquakes and rainfall based on direct costs of urban buildings. Geomorphology, 273, 217-235. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.032.
Wieczorek, G.F., and Glade, T. (2005). Climatic factors influencing occurrence of debris flws. In: M. Jackob, O. Hungr (eds.). Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena (pp. 325-362). Heidelberg: Springer.
Wu, C.Y., and Chen, S.C. (2013). Integrating spatial, temporal, and size probabilities for the annual landslide hazard maps in the Shihmen watershed, Taiwan. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 13, 2353-2367. doi: 10.5194/nhess-13-2353-2013.
Zhang, J., van Westen, C., Tanyas, H., Mavrouli, O., Ge, Y., Bajrachary, S., Gurung, D.R., Dhital, M.R., and Khana, N.R. (2019). How size and trigger matter: analyzing rainfall- and earthquake-triggered landslide inventories and their causal relation in the Koshi River basin, Central Himalaya. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 19(8), 1789-1805. doi: 10.5194/nhess-19-1789-2019.
AMVA. (2007). Microzonificación sísmica detallada de los municipios de Barbosa, Girardota, Copacabana, Sabaneta, La Estrella, Caldas y Envigado. 745 p. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá.
AMVA-UNAL. (2009). Amenaza, vulnerabilidad y riesgo por movimientos en masa, avenidas torrenciales e inundaciones en el Valle de Aburrá - Libro I. 124 p. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá – Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
AMVA-UNAL. (2018). Estudios básicos de amenaza por movimientos en masa, inundaciones y avenidas torrenciales en los municipios de Caldas, La Estrella, Envigado, Itagüí, Bello, Copacabana y Barbosa, para la incorporación de la gestión del riesgo en la planificación territorial. Informe técnico. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá – Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
Aristizábal, E., y Gómez, J. (2007). Inventario de emergencias y desastres en el Valle de Aburrá. Originados por fenómenos naturales y antrópicos en el periodo 1880-2007. Gestión y Ambiente, 10(2), 17-30.
Aristizábal, E., González, T., Montoya, J., Vélez, J., Martínez, H., and Guerra, A. (2011). Análisis de umbrales empíricos de lluvia para el pronóstico de movimientos en masa en el Valle de Aburrá, Colombia. Revista EIA, 8(15), 95-111.
Bai, S., Wang, J., Thiebes, B., Cheng, C., and Yang, Y. (2014). Analysis of the relationship of landslide occurrence with rainfall: a case study of Wudu County, China. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 7(4), 1277-1285. doi: 10.1007/s12517-013-0939-9.
Banco Mundial y GFDRR. (2012). Análisis de la gestión del riesgo de desastres en Colombia: un aporte para la construcción de políticas públicas. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery - Sistema Nacional de Información Para La Gestión Del Riesgo de Desastres. 436 p. Bogotá, Colombia: Banco Mundial.
Cantarino, I., Carrion, M.A., Goerlich, F., and Martínez, V. (2019). A ROC analysis-based classification method for landslide susceptibility maps. Landslides, 16(2), 265-282. doi: 10.1007/s10346-018-1063-4.
Corominas, J. (2000). Landslides and climate. In: Bromhead EN (ed) VIII International Symposium on Landslides Cardiff UK, keynote lectures CDROM 200.
Cruden, D.M., and Varnes, D.J. (1996). Landslide types and processes. In: A.K. Tuner, R.L. Schuster (eds.). Landslides: investigation and mitigation (pp. 36-75). Chapter 3. Transportation research board special report. Vol. 247.
Changnon, S., Pielke, R.Jr., Changnon, D., Sylves, R., and Pulwarty, R. (2000). Human factors explain the increased losses from weather and climate extreme. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 81(3), 437-442.
Chica, A. (1989). Apuntes de geotecnia: cursos de geotecnia y prácticas geotécnicas, Facultad de Minas, Ed. Medellín, Colombia: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
Chung, C.F., and Fabbri, A.G. (1999). Probabilistic prediction models for landslide hazard mapping. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 65(12), 1389-1399.
Chung, C.F., and Fabbri, A.G. (2003). Validation of spatial prediction models for landslide hazard mapping. Natural Hazards, 30(3), 451-472. doi: 10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000007172.62651.2b.
DANE. (2005). Censo 2005. Consultado el 15 de febrero de 2018. www.dane.gov.co/censo/.
Dilley, M., Chen, R., Deichmann, U., Lerner-Lam, A., and Arnold, M. (2005). Natural disaster hotspots. A global risk analysis. Washington: World Bank.
Davis, P.A., and Goodrich, M.T. (1990). A proposed strategy for the validation of ground-water flow and solute transport models. Technical Report, Sandia National Labs. Albuquerque, NM (USA).
Düzgün, H.S.B. and Grimstad, S. (2007). Reliability-based stability analysis and risk assessment for rock slides in Ramnefjell. Proceedings of Applications and Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering ICASP10, Tokyo, Japan.
Eeckhaut, M., and Hervás, J. (2012). Landslide inventories in Europe and policy recommendations for their interoperability and harmonisation. JRC Scientific and Policy Reports, Report EUR 25666.
Fawcett, T. (2006). An introduction to ROC analysis. Pattern Recognation Letters, 27(8), 861-874. doi: 10.1016/j.patrec.2005.10.010.
Flórez, M., Molina, M., y Ramírez, I. (1996). Método cualitativo para la determinación de los niveles de amenaza por movimientos en masa de la ciudad de Medellín, ladera occidental. Alcaldía de Medellín, 90 p.
Glade, T., Crozier, M., and Smith, P. (2000). Applying probability determination to refine landslide-triggering rainfall thresholds using an empirical “Antecedent Daily Rainfall Model”. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 157(6-8), 1059-1079. doi: 10.1007/s000240050017.
Guzzetti, F., Carrara, A., Cardinali, M., and Reichenbach, P. (1999). Landslide hazard evaluation: a review of current techniques and their application in a multi-scale study, Central Italy. Geomorphology, 31(1-4), 181-216. doi: 10.1016/S0169-555X(99)00078-1.
Guzzetti, F., and Tonelli, G. (2004). Information system on hydrological and geomorphological catastrophes in Italy (SICI): a tool for managing landslide and flood hazards. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science, 4(2), 213-232. doi: 10.5194/nhess-4-213-2004.
Guzzetti, F., Peruccacci, S., Rossi, M., and Stark, C.P. (2007). Rainfall thresholds for the initiation of landslides in central and southern Europe. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 98(3-4), 239-267. doi: 10.1007/s00703-007-0262-7
Guzzetti, F., Peruccacci, S., Rossi, M., and Stark, C.P. (2008). The rainfall intensity-duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows: an update. Landslides, 5(1), 3-17. doi: 10.1007/s10346-007-0112-1.
Hermelin, M. (1984). Riesgo geológico en el Valle de Aburrá. Conferencia sobre Riesgos Geológicos en el Valle de Aburrá, Medellín, Colombia.
Ho, J.Y., and Lee, K.T. (2017). Performance evaluation of a physically based model for shallow landslide prediction. Landslides, 14(3), 961-980. doi: 10.1007/s10346-016-0762-y.
Hoppe, P., and Pielke, R.A.Jr. (2006). Climate Change and Disaster Losses Workshop: Understanding and Attributing Trends and Projections. Hohenkammer, Germany, 234 p.
INGEOMINAS. (1990). Zonificación de aptitud del suelo para el uso urbano costado occidental de Medellín. Reporte interno, 91 pp.
Jaiswal, P., van Westen, C., and Jetten, V. (2010). Quantitative landslide hazard assessment along a transportation corridor in southern India. Engineering Geology, 116(3-4), 236-250. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.09.005.
LA RED y OSSO. (2017). DesInventar. Consultado el 25 de septiembre de 2017. http://www.desinventar.org/es/
Liu, C., Frazier, P., and Kumar, L. (2007). Comparative assessment of the measures of thematic classification accuracy. Remote Sensing of Environment, 107(4), 606-616. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2006.10.010.
Malamud, B.D., Turcotte, D. L., Guzzetti, F., and Reichenbach, P. (2004). Landslide inventories and their statistical properties. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 29(6), 687-711. doi: 10.1002/esp.1064.
Morss, R.E., Wilhelmi, O.V., Meehl, G.A., and Dilling, L. (2011). Improving societal outcomes of extreme weather in a changing climate: An integrated perspective. Annual Review of Environment Resources, 36, 1-25. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-060809-100145.
Oh, H.J., and Lee, S. (2011). Landslide susceptibility mapping on Panaon Island, Philippines using a geographic information system. Environmental Earth Science, 62(5), 935-951. doi: 10.1007/s12665-010-0579-2.
OSSO y LA RED. (2009). DesInventar. Sistema de inventario de desastres. Guía Metodológica.
Ozdemir, A., and Altural, T. (2013). A comparative study of frequency ratio, weights of evidence and logistic regression methods for landslide susceptibility mapping: Sultan Mountains, SW Turkey. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 64, 180-197. doi: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.12.014.
Petley, D. (2012). Global patterns of loss of life from landslides. Geology, 40(10), 927-930. doi: 10.1130/G33217.1 .
Regmi, N.G., Giardino, J.R., and Vitek, J.D. (2010). Modeling susceptibility to landslide using the weight of evidence approach: Western Colorado, USA. Geomorphology, 115(1-2), 172-187. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.10.002.
Rodríguez, E.A., Sandoval, J.H., Chaparro, J.L., Medina, E., Ramírez, K.C., Castro, E., Castro, J.A., y Ruiz, G.L. (2017). Guía metodológica para zonificación de amenaza por movimientos en masa a escala 1:25.000. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Bogotá, Colombia.
Sánchez, O., y Aristizábal, E. (2017). Análisis de los impactos por movimientos en masa en Colombia. XVI Congreso Colombiano de Geología, Santa Marta, Colombia.
Sepúlveda, S.A., and Petley, D.N. (2015). Regional trends and controlling factors of fatal landslides in Latin America and the Caribbean. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 15(8), 1821-1833. doi: 10.5194/nhess-15-1821-2015.
SGC. (2015). Guía Metodológica para estudios de Amenaza, Vulnerabilidad y Riesgo por movimientos en masa. Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Bogotá, Colombia.
SGC. (2017). SIMMA. Servicio Geológico Colombiano. Retrieved from http://simma.sgc.gov.co/#/
Shelmon, R. (1979). Zonas de deslizamientos en los alrededores de Medellín, Antioquia (Colombia). Publicaciones Geológicas Especiales del INGEOMINAS. 45 pp.
Sujatha, E.R., Kumaravel, P., and Rajamanickam, G.V. (2014). Assessing landslide susceptibility using Bayesian probability-based weight of evidence model. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 73(1), 147-161. doi: 10.1007/s10064-013-0537-9.
Tokuhiro, H. (1999). Landslide in Villa Tina, Medellin City, Colombia. In: K. Sassa (ed.). Landslides of the World (pp. 198-201). Japan Landslide Society, Kyoto University Press.
Varnes, D.J. (1984). Landslide hazard zonation: A review of principles and practice. Natural Hazards. Paris: UNESCO.
Van Westen, C.J., Rengers, N., and Soeters, R. (2003). Use of geomorphological information in indirect landslide susceptibility assessment. Natural Hazards, 30(3), 399-419. doi: 10.1023/B:NHAZ.0000007097.42735.9e.
Vega, J.A., and Hidalgo, C.A. (2016). Quantitative risk assessment of landslides triggered by earthquakes and rainfall based on direct costs of urban buildings. Geomorphology, 273, 217-235. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.032.
Wieczorek, G.F., and Glade, T. (2005). Climatic factors influencing occurrence of debris flws. In: M. Jackob, O. Hungr (eds.). Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena (pp. 325-362). Heidelberg: Springer.
Wu, C.Y., and Chen, S.C. (2013). Integrating spatial, temporal, and size probabilities for the annual landslide hazard maps in the Shihmen watershed, Taiwan. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 13, 2353-2367. doi: 10.5194/nhess-13-2353-2013.
Zhang, J., van Westen, C., Tanyas, H., Mavrouli, O., Ge, Y., Bajrachary, S., Gurung, D.R., Dhital, M.R., and Khana, N.R. (2019). How size and trigger matter: analyzing rainfall- and earthquake-triggered landslide inventories and their causal relation in the Koshi River basin, Central Himalaya. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 19(8), 1789-1805. doi: 10.5194/nhess-19-1789-2019.