Palabras clave
Obesidad
Pediatría. Sobrepeso
Diabetes Mellitus
Pediatría. Sobrepeso
Diabetes Mellitus
Cómo citar
Acosta-Hernández, M. E., Gasca-Pérez, E., Ramos-Morales, F. R., Solís-Páez, F., Evaristo-Portilla, G., & Soto-Cid, A. H. (2013). Factores, causas y perspectivas de la obesidad infantil en México. Médicas UIS, 26(1). Recuperado a partir de https://revistas.uis.edu.co/index.php/revistamedicasuis/article/view/3592
Resumen
Este escrito comprende una revisión bibliográfica sobre la obesidad infantil en México desde el año 2000 a 2012. La obesidad constituye un problema de salud pública la cual recientemente ha alcanzado proporciones de epidemia en algunos países. Esta patología constituye el principal problema de malnutrición en el adulto y es una enfermedad que ha aumentado notoriamente en la población infantil, ya que se calcula que más de 40 millones de niños padecen sobrepeso u obesidad. Es un trastorno multifactorial en cuya etiopatogenia están implicados factores genéticos, metabólicos, psicosociales y ambientales, por lo que es difícil distinguir en cada caso en particular la importancia relativa de estos factores. La obesidad infantil es uno de los factores de riesgo vinculados al aumento de enfermedad cardiovascular en el adulto, junto con la hipertensión, hipercolesterolemia y diabetes tipo II; se ha identificado que un factor importante en el desarrollo de la obesidad infantil es la influencia de los medios electrónicos que promueven un estilo de vida básicamente sedentario. (MÉD.UIS. 2013;26(1)59:68).
Referencias
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2. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Obesity and overweight. [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012].Disponible en: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/
3. Eyzaguirre F, Silva R, Román R, Palacio A, Cosentino M, Vega V, et al. Prevalencia de síndrome metabólico en niños y adolescentes que consultan por obesidad. RevMedChil. 2011;139(6):732-8.
4. García E, De la Llata M, Kaufer M, Tusié MT, Calzada R, Vázquez V, et al. La obesidad y el síndrome metabólico como problema de salud pública: Una reflexión. Salud Pública de México. 2008;50(6).
5. Monteverde M, Novak B. Obesidad y esperanza de vida en México. Población y Salud en Mesoamérica. 2008;6(1):1-13.
6. Pajuelo J, Rocca J, Gamarra M. Obesidad infantil: sus características antropométricas y bioquímicas. Anales de la Facultad de Medicina. 2003;64(1): 21-6.
7. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012]. Disponible en http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/obesity/WHO_TRS_894/en/
8. Reilly JJ, Dorosty AR, Emmet PM. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in British children: cohort study. BMJ. 1999;16;319(7216):1039.
9. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Sedentary lifestyle: a global public health problem. [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012]. Disponible en: http://www.vidyya.com/2pdfs/sedentary.pdf
10. Gutierrez JP, Rivera-Dommarco J, Shamah-Levy T, Villalpando-Hernandez S, Franco A, Cuevas-Nasu L,Romero-Martinez M, Hernandez-Avila M. Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutricion 2012. Resultados Nacionales.Cuernavaca, Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública (MX), 2012.
11. Guerra JF, Valdez RM, Alderete MG, López MC. Antecedentes históricos sociales de la obesidad en México. Investigación en Salud. 2006;8(2):91–4.
12. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Mover forhealth [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012]. Disponible en: http://www.who.int/world-health-day/previous/2002/en/
13. Barlow S, Dietz WH. Managing of child and adolescent obesity: summary and recommendations based on reports from pediatricians, pediatric nurse practitioners and registered dietitians. Pediatrics. 2002;110(1 Pt 2):236-8.
14. Dietz WH. Health consequences of obesity in youth: childhood predictors of adult disease. Pediatrics. 1998;101(3 Pt 2):518-25.
15. Secretaria de Salud. Boletín de práctica médica efectiva: Obesidad infantil. México; 2006.
16. Bonvecchio A, Safdie M, Monterrubio EA, Gust T, Villalpando S, Rivera JA.Overweigth and obesity trends in Mexican children 2 to 18 years of age from 1988 to 2006.SaludPublica Mex. 2009;51Suppl 4:586-94.
17. Gardner DS, Hoking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Contribution or early weight gain to childhood overweight and metabolic health: a longitudinal study (EarlyBird 36). Pediatrics 2009;123(1):e67-e73.
18. Anderson M. Understanding the childhood obesity epidemic. Colorado State University Extension, Nutrition Resources.[Consultado Marzo 2012]. Disponible en : http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09317.html
19. Krebs NF, Jacobson MS. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Prevention of Pediatric Overweight and Obesity.Pediatrics.2003;112; 424-30.
20. Serdula MK, Ivery D, Coates RJ, Freedman DS, Williamson DF, Bryers T. Do obese children become obese aldults?.A review of theliterature. PrevMed. 1993;22(2):167-77.
21. Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Obesidad Infantil. Boletín de Práctica Médica Efectiva PME 2006:1-6.22. Deckelbaum RJ, Williams CL. Childhood Obesity: The Health Issue. Obes Res. 2001;9Suppl 4:239S-243S.
23. OECD. Obesityupdate 2012. [Consultado Mayo de 2013]. Disponible en: www.oecd.org/health/49716427.pdf
24. Ikramuddin S, Kellogg TA. Energy metabolism and Biochemistry of Obesity.Bariatric Times.2005;(3)5:37-9
25. Kershaw EE, Flier JS. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ.J ClinEndocrinolMetab. 2004;89(6):2548-56.
26. Björntorp P. Metabolic implications of body fat distribution.Diabetes Care. 1991;14(12):1132-43.
27. Barcenas C, Wilkinson A, Strom S, Cao Y, Saunders K, Mahabir S, et al. Birthplace, years of residence in the United States, and Obesity among Mexican-American Adults. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007;15(4):1043-52
28. Jackson JE, Doescher MP, Jerant AF, Hart LG.A national study of obesity prevalence and trends by type of rural county.The Journal of Rural Health. 2005;21(2):140-8.
29. Kaplan MS, Huguet N, Newsom JT, McFarland BH. The association between length of residence and obesity among Hispanic Immigrants. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2004;27(4):323-26.
30. Brewis A. Biocultural Aspects of Obesity in Young Mexican Schoolchildren. Am J Hum Biol. 2003;15(3):446-60.
31. Popkin B. The nutrition transition and obesity in the developing world.J Nutr. 2001;131(3):871S-873S.
32. Wong SL, Leatherdale ST. Association between sedentary behavior, physical activity, and obesity: Inactivity among active kids. PrevChronicDis. 2009;6(1):A26.
33. Rey JP, Rodríguez G, Biosca M, Moreno LA. Sedentary behavior and obesity development in children and adolescents.NutrMetabCardiovasc Dis. 2008;18(3):242-51.
34. Ludwing DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet. 2001;357(9255):505-8
35. Reilly J, Jackson D, Montgomery C, Kelly L, Slater C, Grant S, Paton J. Total energy expenditure and physical activity in young Scottish children: mixed longitudinal study. Lancet. 2004;17;363(9404):211-2.
36. Rodríguez Rossi R. La obesidad infantil y los efectos de los medios electrónicos de comunicación. Investigación en Salud.2006;8(2):95-98.
37. Chakravarthy MV, Booth FW. Eating, exercise, and “thrifty” genotypes: connecting the dots to-ward an evolutionary understanding of modern chronic diseases. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(1):3-10.
38. Joffe B, Zimmet P. The thrifty genotype in type 2 diabetes: an unfinished symphony moving to its finale?.Endocrine. 1998;9(2):139-41.
39. Xiao Li, Xiubin Sun, Li Jin, Fuzhong. Worldwide spatial genetic structure of angiotensinconverting enzyme gene: a new evolutionary ecological evidence for the thrifty genotype hypothesis. European Journal of Human Genetics. 2011;19:1002-1008.
40. Proietto J, Baur LA. 10: Management of obesity. Med J Aust. 2004;3;180(9):474-80.
41. Branson R, Potoczna N, Kral JG, Lentes KU, Hoehe MR, Horber FF. Binge eating as a major phenotype of melanocortin 4 receptor gene mutations. N Engl J Med. 2003;20;348(12):1096-103.
42. Clement K, Vaisse C, Lahlou N, Cabrol S, Pelloux V, Cassuto D, et al. A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature. 1998;26;392(6674):398-401.
43. Krude H, Biebermann H, Luck W, Horn R, Brabant G, Gruters A. Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat Genet. 1998;19:155-7.
44. Montague CT, Farooqi IS, Whitehead JP, Soos MA, Rau H, Wareham NJ, et. al. Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature. 1997;387:903-8.
45. Kurokawa N, Nakai K, Kameo S, Liu ZM, Satoh H. Association of BMI with the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphism in Japanese: meta-analysis. Obes Res. 2001;9:741-5.
46. Clement K, Vaisse C, Manning BS, Basdevant A, Guy-Grand B, Ruiz J, et al. Genetic variation in the beta 3-adrenergic receptor and an increased capacity to gain weight in patients with morbid obesity. N Engl J Med 1995;333 : 352-4.
47. Walston J, Silver K, Bogardus C, Knowler WC, Celi FS, Austin S, et al. Time of onset of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and genetic variation in the beta 3-adrenergic-receptor gene. N Engl J Med. 1995;10; 333(6):343-7.
48. Widen E, Lehto M, Kanninen T, Walston J, Shuldiner AR, Groop LC. Association of a polymorphism in the beta 3-adrenergic-receptor gene with features of the insulin resistance syndrome in Finns.N Engl J Med. 1995;10;333(6):348-51.
49. Gurnell M, Savage DB, Chatterjee VK, O’Rahilly S. The metabolic syndrome: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and its therapeutic modulation. ClinEndocrinolMetab. 2003;88(6):2412-21.
50. Oakes ND, Kennedy CJ, Jenkins AB, Laybutt DR, Chisholm DJ, Kraegen EW. A new antidiabetic agent, BRL 49653, reduces lipid availability and improves insulin action and glucoregulation in the rat. Diabetes. 1994;43:1203-10.
51. Ek J, Urhammer SA, Sorensen TI, Andersen T, Auwerx J, Pedersen O. Homozygosity of the Pro12Ala variant of the peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor-gamma2 (PPAR-gamma2): divergent modulating effects on body mass index in obese and lean Caucasian men. Diabetologia. 1999;42(7):892-5.
52. Stumvoll M, Tschritter O, Fritsche A, Staiger H, Renn W, Weisser M, et al. Association of the T-G polymorphism in adiponectin (exon 2) with obesity and insulin sensitivity: interaction with family history of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2002;51(1):37-41
53. Gonzalez A, Ovilo C. Genetic Basis, Nutritional Challenges and Adaptative Response in the Prenatal Origin of Obesity and Type-2 Diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2012; 8(2):144-54.
54. Reusens B, Ozanne SE, Remacle C. Fetal determinats of type 2 diabetes. CurrDrug Targets. 2007;8(8):935-41.
55. Hirschler VD, González C, Cemente G, Talgham S, Petticnichio H, Jadzinsky M. ¿Cómo perciben las madres de niños de jardín de infantes a sus hijos con sobrepeso? Archivo Argentina de Pediatría. 2006;104(3):221-26.
56. Durá T, Sánchez F. Obesidad Infantil: ¿un problema de educación individual, familiar o social? ActaPediatr Esp. 2005;63: 204-7.
57. Field AE, Cook NR, Gillman MW. Weight Status in Childhood as a Predictor of Becoming Overweight or Hypertensive in Earlt Adulthood.TheNort American AssociationfortheStudy of Obesity. 2005;13:163-69.
58. Rodríguez-Rossi R. La obesidad infantil y los efectos de los medios electrónicos de comunicación. Artemisa en línea. 2006;8(2). Disponible en http://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/invsal/isg-2006/isg062g.pdf.
59. Kumar V, Fausto N, Abbas A. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease, 7th ed. (NY) Elsevier-Saunders 2010.
60. Sikaris KA. The Clinical Biochemistry of Obesity.ClinBiochem Rev. 2004 August; 25(3): 165–181.
61. Wynne K, Stanley S, Bloom S. The gut and regulation of body weight.J ClinEndocrinolMetab. 2004;89(6):2576-82.
62. Tatemoto K, Mutt V. Isolation of two novel candidates hormones using a chemical method for finding naturally occurring polypeptides. Nature.1980;5;285(5764):417-8.
63. Broom DR, Batterham RL, King JA, Stensel DJ. Influence of resistance and aerobic exercise on hunger, circulating levels of acylated ghrelin, and peptide YY in healthy males. Am J Physiol RegulIntegr Comp Physiol. 2008;296(1):29–35.
64. Korner J, Inabnet W, Conwell I, Taveras C, Daud A, Olivero L, et al. Differential effects of gastric bypass and banding on circulating gut hormone and leptin levels. Obesity. 2006;14(9):1553–61.
65. Grandt D, Schimiczek M, Beglinger C, Layer P, Goebell H, Eysselein V, et al. Two molecular forms of peptide YY (PYY) are abundant in human blood: characterization of a radioimmunoassay recognizing PYY 1-36 and PYY 3-36. RegulPept. 1994;51(2):151–59.
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68. Kojima S, Ueno N, Asakawa A, Sagiyama K, Naruo T, Mizuno S, et al. A role for pancreatic polypeptide in feeding and body weight regulation.Peptides. 2007;28(2):459-63.
69. Liu Y, Semjonous NM, Murphy KG, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. The effects of pancreatic polypeptide on locomotor activity and food intake in mice.Int J Obes (Lond). 2008;32:1712-15.
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73. Chapman I, Parker B, Doran S, Feinle-Bisset C, Wishart J, Strobel S, et al. Effect of pramlintide on satiety and food intake in obese subjects and subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2005;48(5):838-48.
2. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Obesity and overweight. [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012].Disponible en: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/
3. Eyzaguirre F, Silva R, Román R, Palacio A, Cosentino M, Vega V, et al. Prevalencia de síndrome metabólico en niños y adolescentes que consultan por obesidad. RevMedChil. 2011;139(6):732-8.
4. García E, De la Llata M, Kaufer M, Tusié MT, Calzada R, Vázquez V, et al. La obesidad y el síndrome metabólico como problema de salud pública: Una reflexión. Salud Pública de México. 2008;50(6).
5. Monteverde M, Novak B. Obesidad y esperanza de vida en México. Población y Salud en Mesoamérica. 2008;6(1):1-13.
6. Pajuelo J, Rocca J, Gamarra M. Obesidad infantil: sus características antropométricas y bioquímicas. Anales de la Facultad de Medicina. 2003;64(1): 21-6.
7. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012]. Disponible en http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/obesity/WHO_TRS_894/en/
8. Reilly JJ, Dorosty AR, Emmet PM. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in British children: cohort study. BMJ. 1999;16;319(7216):1039.
9. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Sedentary lifestyle: a global public health problem. [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012]. Disponible en: http://www.vidyya.com/2pdfs/sedentary.pdf
10. Gutierrez JP, Rivera-Dommarco J, Shamah-Levy T, Villalpando-Hernandez S, Franco A, Cuevas-Nasu L,Romero-Martinez M, Hernandez-Avila M. Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutricion 2012. Resultados Nacionales.Cuernavaca, Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública (MX), 2012.
11. Guerra JF, Valdez RM, Alderete MG, López MC. Antecedentes históricos sociales de la obesidad en México. Investigación en Salud. 2006;8(2):91–4.
12. World Health Organization [sede Web]: Mover forhealth [Actualizado 2012; acceso 24 de febrero 2012]. Disponible en: http://www.who.int/world-health-day/previous/2002/en/
13. Barlow S, Dietz WH. Managing of child and adolescent obesity: summary and recommendations based on reports from pediatricians, pediatric nurse practitioners and registered dietitians. Pediatrics. 2002;110(1 Pt 2):236-8.
14. Dietz WH. Health consequences of obesity in youth: childhood predictors of adult disease. Pediatrics. 1998;101(3 Pt 2):518-25.
15. Secretaria de Salud. Boletín de práctica médica efectiva: Obesidad infantil. México; 2006.
16. Bonvecchio A, Safdie M, Monterrubio EA, Gust T, Villalpando S, Rivera JA.Overweigth and obesity trends in Mexican children 2 to 18 years of age from 1988 to 2006.SaludPublica Mex. 2009;51Suppl 4:586-94.
17. Gardner DS, Hoking J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ. Contribution or early weight gain to childhood overweight and metabolic health: a longitudinal study (EarlyBird 36). Pediatrics 2009;123(1):e67-e73.
18. Anderson M. Understanding the childhood obesity epidemic. Colorado State University Extension, Nutrition Resources.[Consultado Marzo 2012]. Disponible en : http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09317.html
19. Krebs NF, Jacobson MS. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Prevention of Pediatric Overweight and Obesity.Pediatrics.2003;112; 424-30.
20. Serdula MK, Ivery D, Coates RJ, Freedman DS, Williamson DF, Bryers T. Do obese children become obese aldults?.A review of theliterature. PrevMed. 1993;22(2):167-77.
21. Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Obesidad Infantil. Boletín de Práctica Médica Efectiva PME 2006:1-6.22. Deckelbaum RJ, Williams CL. Childhood Obesity: The Health Issue. Obes Res. 2001;9Suppl 4:239S-243S.
23. OECD. Obesityupdate 2012. [Consultado Mayo de 2013]. Disponible en: www.oecd.org/health/49716427.pdf
24. Ikramuddin S, Kellogg TA. Energy metabolism and Biochemistry of Obesity.Bariatric Times.2005;(3)5:37-9
25. Kershaw EE, Flier JS. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ.J ClinEndocrinolMetab. 2004;89(6):2548-56.
26. Björntorp P. Metabolic implications of body fat distribution.Diabetes Care. 1991;14(12):1132-43.
27. Barcenas C, Wilkinson A, Strom S, Cao Y, Saunders K, Mahabir S, et al. Birthplace, years of residence in the United States, and Obesity among Mexican-American Adults. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007;15(4):1043-52
28. Jackson JE, Doescher MP, Jerant AF, Hart LG.A national study of obesity prevalence and trends by type of rural county.The Journal of Rural Health. 2005;21(2):140-8.
29. Kaplan MS, Huguet N, Newsom JT, McFarland BH. The association between length of residence and obesity among Hispanic Immigrants. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2004;27(4):323-26.
30. Brewis A. Biocultural Aspects of Obesity in Young Mexican Schoolchildren. Am J Hum Biol. 2003;15(3):446-60.
31. Popkin B. The nutrition transition and obesity in the developing world.J Nutr. 2001;131(3):871S-873S.
32. Wong SL, Leatherdale ST. Association between sedentary behavior, physical activity, and obesity: Inactivity among active kids. PrevChronicDis. 2009;6(1):A26.
33. Rey JP, Rodríguez G, Biosca M, Moreno LA. Sedentary behavior and obesity development in children and adolescents.NutrMetabCardiovasc Dis. 2008;18(3):242-51.
34. Ludwing DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet. 2001;357(9255):505-8
35. Reilly J, Jackson D, Montgomery C, Kelly L, Slater C, Grant S, Paton J. Total energy expenditure and physical activity in young Scottish children: mixed longitudinal study. Lancet. 2004;17;363(9404):211-2.
36. Rodríguez Rossi R. La obesidad infantil y los efectos de los medios electrónicos de comunicación. Investigación en Salud.2006;8(2):95-98.
37. Chakravarthy MV, Booth FW. Eating, exercise, and “thrifty” genotypes: connecting the dots to-ward an evolutionary understanding of modern chronic diseases. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(1):3-10.
38. Joffe B, Zimmet P. The thrifty genotype in type 2 diabetes: an unfinished symphony moving to its finale?.Endocrine. 1998;9(2):139-41.
39. Xiao Li, Xiubin Sun, Li Jin, Fuzhong. Worldwide spatial genetic structure of angiotensinconverting enzyme gene: a new evolutionary ecological evidence for the thrifty genotype hypothesis. European Journal of Human Genetics. 2011;19:1002-1008.
40. Proietto J, Baur LA. 10: Management of obesity. Med J Aust. 2004;3;180(9):474-80.
41. Branson R, Potoczna N, Kral JG, Lentes KU, Hoehe MR, Horber FF. Binge eating as a major phenotype of melanocortin 4 receptor gene mutations. N Engl J Med. 2003;20;348(12):1096-103.
42. Clement K, Vaisse C, Lahlou N, Cabrol S, Pelloux V, Cassuto D, et al. A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature. 1998;26;392(6674):398-401.
43. Krude H, Biebermann H, Luck W, Horn R, Brabant G, Gruters A. Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat Genet. 1998;19:155-7.
44. Montague CT, Farooqi IS, Whitehead JP, Soos MA, Rau H, Wareham NJ, et. al. Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature. 1997;387:903-8.
45. Kurokawa N, Nakai K, Kameo S, Liu ZM, Satoh H. Association of BMI with the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphism in Japanese: meta-analysis. Obes Res. 2001;9:741-5.
46. Clement K, Vaisse C, Manning BS, Basdevant A, Guy-Grand B, Ruiz J, et al. Genetic variation in the beta 3-adrenergic receptor and an increased capacity to gain weight in patients with morbid obesity. N Engl J Med 1995;333 : 352-4.
47. Walston J, Silver K, Bogardus C, Knowler WC, Celi FS, Austin S, et al. Time of onset of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and genetic variation in the beta 3-adrenergic-receptor gene. N Engl J Med. 1995;10; 333(6):343-7.
48. Widen E, Lehto M, Kanninen T, Walston J, Shuldiner AR, Groop LC. Association of a polymorphism in the beta 3-adrenergic-receptor gene with features of the insulin resistance syndrome in Finns.N Engl J Med. 1995;10;333(6):348-51.
49. Gurnell M, Savage DB, Chatterjee VK, O’Rahilly S. The metabolic syndrome: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and its therapeutic modulation. ClinEndocrinolMetab. 2003;88(6):2412-21.
50. Oakes ND, Kennedy CJ, Jenkins AB, Laybutt DR, Chisholm DJ, Kraegen EW. A new antidiabetic agent, BRL 49653, reduces lipid availability and improves insulin action and glucoregulation in the rat. Diabetes. 1994;43:1203-10.
51. Ek J, Urhammer SA, Sorensen TI, Andersen T, Auwerx J, Pedersen O. Homozygosity of the Pro12Ala variant of the peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor-gamma2 (PPAR-gamma2): divergent modulating effects on body mass index in obese and lean Caucasian men. Diabetologia. 1999;42(7):892-5.
52. Stumvoll M, Tschritter O, Fritsche A, Staiger H, Renn W, Weisser M, et al. Association of the T-G polymorphism in adiponectin (exon 2) with obesity and insulin sensitivity: interaction with family history of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2002;51(1):37-41
53. Gonzalez A, Ovilo C. Genetic Basis, Nutritional Challenges and Adaptative Response in the Prenatal Origin of Obesity and Type-2 Diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2012; 8(2):144-54.
54. Reusens B, Ozanne SE, Remacle C. Fetal determinats of type 2 diabetes. CurrDrug Targets. 2007;8(8):935-41.
55. Hirschler VD, González C, Cemente G, Talgham S, Petticnichio H, Jadzinsky M. ¿Cómo perciben las madres de niños de jardín de infantes a sus hijos con sobrepeso? Archivo Argentina de Pediatría. 2006;104(3):221-26.
56. Durá T, Sánchez F. Obesidad Infantil: ¿un problema de educación individual, familiar o social? ActaPediatr Esp. 2005;63: 204-7.
57. Field AE, Cook NR, Gillman MW. Weight Status in Childhood as a Predictor of Becoming Overweight or Hypertensive in Earlt Adulthood.TheNort American AssociationfortheStudy of Obesity. 2005;13:163-69.
58. Rodríguez-Rossi R. La obesidad infantil y los efectos de los medios electrónicos de comunicación. Artemisa en línea. 2006;8(2). Disponible en http://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/invsal/isg-2006/isg062g.pdf.
59. Kumar V, Fausto N, Abbas A. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease, 7th ed. (NY) Elsevier-Saunders 2010.
60. Sikaris KA. The Clinical Biochemistry of Obesity.ClinBiochem Rev. 2004 August; 25(3): 165–181.
61. Wynne K, Stanley S, Bloom S. The gut and regulation of body weight.J ClinEndocrinolMetab. 2004;89(6):2576-82.
62. Tatemoto K, Mutt V. Isolation of two novel candidates hormones using a chemical method for finding naturally occurring polypeptides. Nature.1980;5;285(5764):417-8.
63. Broom DR, Batterham RL, King JA, Stensel DJ. Influence of resistance and aerobic exercise on hunger, circulating levels of acylated ghrelin, and peptide YY in healthy males. Am J Physiol RegulIntegr Comp Physiol. 2008;296(1):29–35.
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