Palabras clave
Demencia Vascular
Depresión
Anciano
Depresión
Anciano
Cómo citar
Pineda Isaza, A., Rendón Toro, J. C., Toro Trujillo, E., & Gómez Montes, J. F. (2014). Depresión de aparición tardía y su relación con la demencia vascular en el anciano. Médicas UIS, 27(2). Recuperado a partir de https://revistas.uis.edu.co/index.php/revistamedicasuis/article/view/4325
Resumen
Introducción: la demencia vascular es un síndrome de naturaleza crónica y progresiva, caracterizado por una perturbación de diversas funciones mentales superiores, la cual conlleva a un deterioro global en las esferas comportamental, social, emocional y biológica del individuo. Objetivo: describir los aspectos más actualizados y relevantes en demencia, específicamente la demencia vascular, su asociación con depresión de aparición tardía, mecanismos fisiopatológicos, el impacto en la funcionalidad del anciano y los puntos más destacados en el tamizaje y diagnóstico de ambas entidades. Metodología: se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura sobre demencia vascular y su asociación con la depresión de aparición tardía en las bases de datos PubMed, ScienceDirect y Ovid durante los meses de mayo a agosto de 2013. Resultados: se encontraron 62 artículos con información actualizada. Destaca la clara asociación entre ambas patologías, con una prevalencia global de trastornos depresivos de 27,41%, de los cuales 44,41% corresponden a sujetos con demencia de tipo vascular, 32,48% a otros tipos de demencia no especificada y 18,53% a Enfermedad de Alzheimer. Conclusión: la demencia vascular es una entidad que ha incrementado la morbilidad de la población geriátrica, por lo cual se hace cada vez más necesaria la aplicación sistemática de métodos de tamizaje reproducibles, económicos y confiables, con el objetivo de favorecer el diagnóstico y la detección precoz. En nuestro concepto dichos métodos de tamizaje deberían incluir dentro de sus criterios diagnósticos a los trastornos depresivos, dada la relación de su aparición en etapas tardías de la vida con el posterior desarrollo de deterioro cognitivo y demencia de tipo vascular.
Referencias
1. World Health Organization and Alzheimer’s Disease International. Dementia: A Public Health Priority. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2012. p. 7.
2. United Nations. Department of Economics and Social Affairs. World Population Ageing 2009. New York: United Nations. 2010.
3. Alzheimer’s Disease International. World Alzheimer Report 2009. London: Alzheimer’s Disease International. 2009.
4. World Health Organization. The global burden of disease: 2004 update. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2008.
5. Alzheimer’s Disease International. World Alzheimer Report 2010: the global economic impact of dementia. London: Alzheimer’s Disease International. 2010.
6. Kling MA, Trojanowski JQ, Wolk DA, Lee VM, Arnold SE. Vascular disease and dementias: paradigm shifts to drive research in new directions. Alzheimers Dement. 2013; 9(1):76-92.
7. Teper E, O’Brien JT. Vascular factors and depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry.2008; 23(10):993–1000.
8. Almeida OP, Flicker L, Norman P, Hankey GJ, Vasikaran S, van Bockxmeer FM, et al. Association of cardiovascular risk factors and disease with depression in later life. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007; 15(6):506–13.
9. Kalaria RN, Maestre GE, Arizaga R, Friedland RP, Galasko D, Hall K, et al. Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia in developing countries: prevalence, management, and risk factors. Lancet Neurol. 2008; 7(9):812-26.
10. Butters MA, Young JB, Lopez O, Aizenstein HJ, Mulsant BH, Reynolds CF 3rd, et al. Pathways linking late-life depression to persistent cognitive impairment and dementia. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008; 10(3):345–57.
11. Li G, Wang LY, Shofer JB, Thompson ML, Peskind ER, McCormick W, et al. Temporal relationship between depression and dementia: findings from a large community-based 15 year follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011; 68(9):970-7.
12. Dillon C, Allegri RF, Serrano CM, Iturry M, Salgado P, Glaser FB, et al. Late- versus early-onset geriatric depression in a memory research center. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2009; 5:517-26.
13. Strassnig M, Ganguli M. About a peculiar disease of the cerebral cortex: Alzheimer’s original case revisited. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2005; 2(9):30-3.
14. Román GC. Vascular dementia revisited: diagnosis, pathogenesis, treatment and prevention. Med Clin North Am. 2002; 86(3):477–99.
15. Luijendijk HJ, van den Berg JF, Dekker MJ, van Tujil HR, Otte W, Smit F, et al. Incidence and recurrence of late-life depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008; 65(12):1394-401.
16. Gareri P, De Fazio P, De Sarro G. Neuropharmacology of depression in aging and age-related diseases. Ageing Res Rev. 2002; 1(1):113-34.
17. Katon WJ. Clinical and health services relationships between major depression, depressive symptoms, and general medical illness. Biol Psychiatry. 2003; 54(3):216-26.
18. Hickie IB, Rogers NL. Novel melatonin-based therapies: potential advances in the treatment of major depression. Lancet. 2011 Aug 13; 378(9791):621-31.
19. Wilson RS, Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF, Aggarwal NT, Schneider JS, Bach J, et al. Depressive symptoms, cognitive decline, and risk of AD in older persons. Neurology. 2002; 59(3):364–70.
20. Chen R, Hu Z, Wei L, Qin X, McCracken C, Copeland JR. Severity of depression and risk for subsequent dementia: cohort studies in China and the UK. Br J Psychiatry. 2008; 193(5):373–7.
21. Verkaik R, Nuyen J, Schellevis F, Francke A. The relationship between severity of Alzheimer’s disease and prevalence of comorbid depressive symptoms and depression: a systematic review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007; 22(11):1063–86.
22. Selbaek G, Kirkevold O, Engedal K. The prevalence of psychiatric symptoms and behavioural disturbances and the use of psychotropic drugs in Norwegian nursing homes. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007; 22(9):843–9.
23. Lyketsos CG, Olin J. Depression in Alzheimer’s disease: overview and treatment. Biol Psychiatry. 2002; 52(3):243–52.
24. Brunnström H, Passant U, Englund E, Gustafson L. History of depression prior to Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia verified post-mortem. Arch gerontol geriatr. 2013; 56(1):80-4.
25. Sweet RA, Hamilton RL, Butters MA, Mulsant BH, Pollock BG, Lewis DA, et al. Neuropathologic correlates of late-onset major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004 Dec; 29(12):2242-50.
26. Teper E, O’Brien JT. Vascular factors and depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2008; 23 (10):993–1000.
27. Beck AT. The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological correlates. Am J Psychiatry. 2008; 165(8):969–77.
28. Checkley S. The neuroendocrinology of depression and chronic stress. Br Med Bull. 1996; 52:597-617.
29. Van de Pol LA, Hensel A, Barkhof F, Gertz HJ, Scheltens P, van der Flier WM. Hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer disease: age matters. Neurology. 2006; 66:236–8.
30. Barber R, Ballard C, McKeith IG, Gholkar A, O’Brien JT. MRI volumetric study of dementia with Lewy bodies. A comparison with AD and vascular dementia. Neurology 2000; 54:1304–9.
31. Sheline YI, Gado MH, Kraemer HC. Untreated depression and hippocampal volume loss. Am J Psychiatry. 2003; 160(8):1516–8.
32. Bremner JD, Narayan M, Anderson ER, Staib LH, Miller HL, Charney DS. Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2000; 157(1):115–8.
33. MacQueen GM, Macdonald K, Amano S, Joffe RT, Nahmias C, Young LT. Course of illness, hippocampal function and hippocampal volume in major depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100(3):1387–92.
34. Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000; 57(10):925-35.
35. Alexopoulos GS, Meyers BS, Young RC, Campbell S, Silbersweig D, Charlson M. Vascular depression hypothesis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997; 54(10):915–22.
36. Krishnan KR, Hays JC, Blazer DG. MRI-defined vascular depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1997; 154(4):497-501.
37. Steffens DC. Establishing diagnostic criteria for vascular depression. J Neurol Sci. 2004; 226(1-2):59 – 62.
38. Soares JC, Mann JJ. The anatomy of mood disorders-review of structural neuroimaging studies. Biol Psychiatry. 1997; 41(1):86 - 106.
39. Thomas AJ, Kalaria RN, O’Brien JT. Depression and vascular disease: what is the relationship? J Affect Disord. 2004; 79(1-3):81-95.
40. Fernández Martínez M, Castro Flores J, Pérez de Las Heras S, Mandaluniz Lekumberri A, Gordejuela Menocal M, Zarranz Imirizaldu JJ. Risk factors for dementia in the epidemiological study of Munguialde County (Basque Country- Spain). BMC Neurol. 2008; 8:39.
41. Korczyn AD, Halperin I. Depression and dementia.J Neurol Sci. 2009; 283(1-2):139-42.
42. Harwood DG, Sultzer DL, Wheatley MV. Impaired insight in Alzheimer disease: association with cognitive deficits, psychiatric symptoms, and behavioral disturbances. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol. 2000; 13(2):83–8.
43. Schneider JA, Arvanitakis Z, Leurgans SE, Bennett DA. The neuropathology of probable Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol.2009; 66(2):200-8.
44. Cerezo, Gustavo H. Evaluación, diagnóstico y tratamiento de los trastornos cognitivos en pacientes con enfermedad vascular Recomendaciones para la práctica clínica. Catálogo maestro de guías de práctica clínica. 2007.
45. Wiederkehr S, Simard M, Fortin C, van Reekum R. Comparability of the clinical diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia: a critical review. Part II. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008; 20(2):162-77.
46. Hachinski VC, Iliff LD, Zilhka E, Du Boulay GH, McAllister VL, Marshall J, et al. Cerebral blood flow in dementia. Arch Neurol. 1975; 32(9):632-7.
47. Moroney JT, Bagiella E, Desmond DW, Hachinski VC, Mölsä PK, Gustafson L. Meta-analysis of the Hachinski Ischemic Score in pathologically verified dementias. Neurology. 1997; 49(4):1096–105.
48. Zekry D, Duyckaerts C, Belmin J, Geoffre C, Moulias R, Hauw JJ. Alzheimer’s disease and brain infarcts in the elderly. J Neurol. 2002; 249(11):1529–34.
49. Bacchetta JP, Kovari E, Merlo M, Canuto A, Herrmann FR, Bouras C, et al. Validation of clinical criteria for possible vascular dementia in the oldest-old. Neurobiol Aging. 2007; 28(4):579-85.
50. Wilkinson D, Stave C, Keohane D, Vincenzino O. The role of general practitioners in the diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: a multinational survey. J Int Med Res. 2004;32(2):149-59.
51. Villarejo A, Puertas-Martín V. Usefulness of short tests in dementia screening. Neurologia. 2011;26(7):425-33.
52. Peters R, Pinto EM. Predictive value of the clock drawing test. A review of the literature. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2008;26(4):351-5.
53. García-Caballero A, Recimil MJ, García-Lado I, Gayoso P, Cadarso-Suárez C, González-Hermida J, et al. ACE clock scoring: a comparison with eight standard correction methods in a population of low educational level. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2006;19(4):216-9.
54. Cacho-Gutiérrez LJ, García-García R, Arcaya-Navarro J, Vicente-Villardón JL, Lantada-Puebla N. Una propuesta de aplicación y puntuación del test del reloj en la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Rev Neurol. 1999;28:648-55.
55. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL, Lum O, Huang V, Adey M, et al. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res. 1983;17(1):37-49.
56. Sheikh JI, Yesavage JA. Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS): recent evidence and development of a shorter version. Clin Gerontol. 1986;5:165-73.
57. Mitchell AJ, Bird V, Rizzo M, Meader N. Which version of the geriatric depression scale is most useful in medical settings and nursing homes? Diagnostic validity meta-analysis. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;18(12):1066-77.
58. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. 1994.
59. Rapp MA, Schnaider-Beeri M, Wysocki M, Guerrero-Berroa E, Grossman HT, Heinz A, et al. Cognitive decline in patients with dementia as a function of depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2011;19(4):357-63.
60. Sheline YI, Pieper CF, Barch DM, Welsh-Bohmer K, McKinstry RC, MacFall JR, et al. Support for the vascular depression hypothesis in late-life depression: results of a 2-site, prospective, antidepressant treatment trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(3):277-85.
61. Ballard C, Bannister C, Solis M, Oyebode F, Wilcock G. The prevalence, associations and symptoms of depression amongst dementia sufferers. J Affect Disord. 1996;36(3-4):135–44.
62. Castilla-Puentes RC, Habeych ME. Subtypes of depression among patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. Alzheimers Dement. 2010;6(1):63-9.
2. United Nations. Department of Economics and Social Affairs. World Population Ageing 2009. New York: United Nations. 2010.
3. Alzheimer’s Disease International. World Alzheimer Report 2009. London: Alzheimer’s Disease International. 2009.
4. World Health Organization. The global burden of disease: 2004 update. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2008.
5. Alzheimer’s Disease International. World Alzheimer Report 2010: the global economic impact of dementia. London: Alzheimer’s Disease International. 2010.
6. Kling MA, Trojanowski JQ, Wolk DA, Lee VM, Arnold SE. Vascular disease and dementias: paradigm shifts to drive research in new directions. Alzheimers Dement. 2013; 9(1):76-92.
7. Teper E, O’Brien JT. Vascular factors and depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry.2008; 23(10):993–1000.
8. Almeida OP, Flicker L, Norman P, Hankey GJ, Vasikaran S, van Bockxmeer FM, et al. Association of cardiovascular risk factors and disease with depression in later life. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007; 15(6):506–13.
9. Kalaria RN, Maestre GE, Arizaga R, Friedland RP, Galasko D, Hall K, et al. Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia in developing countries: prevalence, management, and risk factors. Lancet Neurol. 2008; 7(9):812-26.
10. Butters MA, Young JB, Lopez O, Aizenstein HJ, Mulsant BH, Reynolds CF 3rd, et al. Pathways linking late-life depression to persistent cognitive impairment and dementia. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008; 10(3):345–57.
11. Li G, Wang LY, Shofer JB, Thompson ML, Peskind ER, McCormick W, et al. Temporal relationship between depression and dementia: findings from a large community-based 15 year follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011; 68(9):970-7.
12. Dillon C, Allegri RF, Serrano CM, Iturry M, Salgado P, Glaser FB, et al. Late- versus early-onset geriatric depression in a memory research center. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2009; 5:517-26.
13. Strassnig M, Ganguli M. About a peculiar disease of the cerebral cortex: Alzheimer’s original case revisited. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2005; 2(9):30-3.
14. Román GC. Vascular dementia revisited: diagnosis, pathogenesis, treatment and prevention. Med Clin North Am. 2002; 86(3):477–99.
15. Luijendijk HJ, van den Berg JF, Dekker MJ, van Tujil HR, Otte W, Smit F, et al. Incidence and recurrence of late-life depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008; 65(12):1394-401.
16. Gareri P, De Fazio P, De Sarro G. Neuropharmacology of depression in aging and age-related diseases. Ageing Res Rev. 2002; 1(1):113-34.
17. Katon WJ. Clinical and health services relationships between major depression, depressive symptoms, and general medical illness. Biol Psychiatry. 2003; 54(3):216-26.
18. Hickie IB, Rogers NL. Novel melatonin-based therapies: potential advances in the treatment of major depression. Lancet. 2011 Aug 13; 378(9791):621-31.
19. Wilson RS, Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF, Aggarwal NT, Schneider JS, Bach J, et al. Depressive symptoms, cognitive decline, and risk of AD in older persons. Neurology. 2002; 59(3):364–70.
20. Chen R, Hu Z, Wei L, Qin X, McCracken C, Copeland JR. Severity of depression and risk for subsequent dementia: cohort studies in China and the UK. Br J Psychiatry. 2008; 193(5):373–7.
21. Verkaik R, Nuyen J, Schellevis F, Francke A. The relationship between severity of Alzheimer’s disease and prevalence of comorbid depressive symptoms and depression: a systematic review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007; 22(11):1063–86.
22. Selbaek G, Kirkevold O, Engedal K. The prevalence of psychiatric symptoms and behavioural disturbances and the use of psychotropic drugs in Norwegian nursing homes. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007; 22(9):843–9.
23. Lyketsos CG, Olin J. Depression in Alzheimer’s disease: overview and treatment. Biol Psychiatry. 2002; 52(3):243–52.
24. Brunnström H, Passant U, Englund E, Gustafson L. History of depression prior to Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia verified post-mortem. Arch gerontol geriatr. 2013; 56(1):80-4.
25. Sweet RA, Hamilton RL, Butters MA, Mulsant BH, Pollock BG, Lewis DA, et al. Neuropathologic correlates of late-onset major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004 Dec; 29(12):2242-50.
26. Teper E, O’Brien JT. Vascular factors and depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2008; 23 (10):993–1000.
27. Beck AT. The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological correlates. Am J Psychiatry. 2008; 165(8):969–77.
28. Checkley S. The neuroendocrinology of depression and chronic stress. Br Med Bull. 1996; 52:597-617.
29. Van de Pol LA, Hensel A, Barkhof F, Gertz HJ, Scheltens P, van der Flier WM. Hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer disease: age matters. Neurology. 2006; 66:236–8.
30. Barber R, Ballard C, McKeith IG, Gholkar A, O’Brien JT. MRI volumetric study of dementia with Lewy bodies. A comparison with AD and vascular dementia. Neurology 2000; 54:1304–9.
31. Sheline YI, Gado MH, Kraemer HC. Untreated depression and hippocampal volume loss. Am J Psychiatry. 2003; 160(8):1516–8.
32. Bremner JD, Narayan M, Anderson ER, Staib LH, Miller HL, Charney DS. Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2000; 157(1):115–8.
33. MacQueen GM, Macdonald K, Amano S, Joffe RT, Nahmias C, Young LT. Course of illness, hippocampal function and hippocampal volume in major depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100(3):1387–92.
34. Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000; 57(10):925-35.
35. Alexopoulos GS, Meyers BS, Young RC, Campbell S, Silbersweig D, Charlson M. Vascular depression hypothesis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997; 54(10):915–22.
36. Krishnan KR, Hays JC, Blazer DG. MRI-defined vascular depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1997; 154(4):497-501.
37. Steffens DC. Establishing diagnostic criteria for vascular depression. J Neurol Sci. 2004; 226(1-2):59 – 62.
38. Soares JC, Mann JJ. The anatomy of mood disorders-review of structural neuroimaging studies. Biol Psychiatry. 1997; 41(1):86 - 106.
39. Thomas AJ, Kalaria RN, O’Brien JT. Depression and vascular disease: what is the relationship? J Affect Disord. 2004; 79(1-3):81-95.
40. Fernández Martínez M, Castro Flores J, Pérez de Las Heras S, Mandaluniz Lekumberri A, Gordejuela Menocal M, Zarranz Imirizaldu JJ. Risk factors for dementia in the epidemiological study of Munguialde County (Basque Country- Spain). BMC Neurol. 2008; 8:39.
41. Korczyn AD, Halperin I. Depression and dementia.J Neurol Sci. 2009; 283(1-2):139-42.
42. Harwood DG, Sultzer DL, Wheatley MV. Impaired insight in Alzheimer disease: association with cognitive deficits, psychiatric symptoms, and behavioral disturbances. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol. 2000; 13(2):83–8.
43. Schneider JA, Arvanitakis Z, Leurgans SE, Bennett DA. The neuropathology of probable Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol.2009; 66(2):200-8.
44. Cerezo, Gustavo H. Evaluación, diagnóstico y tratamiento de los trastornos cognitivos en pacientes con enfermedad vascular Recomendaciones para la práctica clínica. Catálogo maestro de guías de práctica clínica. 2007.
45. Wiederkehr S, Simard M, Fortin C, van Reekum R. Comparability of the clinical diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia: a critical review. Part II. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008; 20(2):162-77.
46. Hachinski VC, Iliff LD, Zilhka E, Du Boulay GH, McAllister VL, Marshall J, et al. Cerebral blood flow in dementia. Arch Neurol. 1975; 32(9):632-7.
47. Moroney JT, Bagiella E, Desmond DW, Hachinski VC, Mölsä PK, Gustafson L. Meta-analysis of the Hachinski Ischemic Score in pathologically verified dementias. Neurology. 1997; 49(4):1096–105.
48. Zekry D, Duyckaerts C, Belmin J, Geoffre C, Moulias R, Hauw JJ. Alzheimer’s disease and brain infarcts in the elderly. J Neurol. 2002; 249(11):1529–34.
49. Bacchetta JP, Kovari E, Merlo M, Canuto A, Herrmann FR, Bouras C, et al. Validation of clinical criteria for possible vascular dementia in the oldest-old. Neurobiol Aging. 2007; 28(4):579-85.
50. Wilkinson D, Stave C, Keohane D, Vincenzino O. The role of general practitioners in the diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: a multinational survey. J Int Med Res. 2004;32(2):149-59.
51. Villarejo A, Puertas-Martín V. Usefulness of short tests in dementia screening. Neurologia. 2011;26(7):425-33.
52. Peters R, Pinto EM. Predictive value of the clock drawing test. A review of the literature. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2008;26(4):351-5.
53. García-Caballero A, Recimil MJ, García-Lado I, Gayoso P, Cadarso-Suárez C, González-Hermida J, et al. ACE clock scoring: a comparison with eight standard correction methods in a population of low educational level. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2006;19(4):216-9.
54. Cacho-Gutiérrez LJ, García-García R, Arcaya-Navarro J, Vicente-Villardón JL, Lantada-Puebla N. Una propuesta de aplicación y puntuación del test del reloj en la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Rev Neurol. 1999;28:648-55.
55. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL, Lum O, Huang V, Adey M, et al. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res. 1983;17(1):37-49.
56. Sheikh JI, Yesavage JA. Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS): recent evidence and development of a shorter version. Clin Gerontol. 1986;5:165-73.
57. Mitchell AJ, Bird V, Rizzo M, Meader N. Which version of the geriatric depression scale is most useful in medical settings and nursing homes? Diagnostic validity meta-analysis. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;18(12):1066-77.
58. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. 1994.
59. Rapp MA, Schnaider-Beeri M, Wysocki M, Guerrero-Berroa E, Grossman HT, Heinz A, et al. Cognitive decline in patients with dementia as a function of depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2011;19(4):357-63.
60. Sheline YI, Pieper CF, Barch DM, Welsh-Bohmer K, McKinstry RC, MacFall JR, et al. Support for the vascular depression hypothesis in late-life depression: results of a 2-site, prospective, antidepressant treatment trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(3):277-85.
61. Ballard C, Bannister C, Solis M, Oyebode F, Wilcock G. The prevalence, associations and symptoms of depression amongst dementia sufferers. J Affect Disord. 1996;36(3-4):135–44.
62. Castilla-Puentes RC, Habeych ME. Subtypes of depression among patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. Alzheimers Dement. 2010;6(1):63-9.
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