Parkinson disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment
pdf (Español (España))
HTML (Español (España))
EPUB (Español (España))

Keywords

Parkinson disease
movement disorders
tremor
levodopa
deep brain stimulation

How to Cite

Marín, D. S., Carmona, H., Ibarra, M., & Gámez, M. (2018). Parkinson disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. Salud UIS, 50(1), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.18273/revsal.v50n1-2018008

Abstract

Parkinson’s disease is the second cause of progressive chronic neurodegenerative disease, it has a high prevalence and incidence, generates a high impact on the quality of life of patients and significant costs due to its healthcare. Parkinson’s disease is developed due to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substance nigra pars compacta, which is manifested in the appearance of motor symptoms such as bradykinesia, rest tremor, rigidity and postural instability; as well as non-motor symptoms such as gastrointestinal, sleep, autonomic, cognitive alterations, among others, reflecting the impairment of different non-dopaminergic pathways. The diagnosis is based on its most frequent clinical manifestations and the exclusion of other causes of parkinsonism. The pharmacological treatment seeks to control motor and non-motor symptoms, which are worsened by the natural history of the disease or are accompanied by side effects induced by pharmacotherapy, making necessary other approaches such as deep brain stimulation.

https://doi.org/10.18273/revsal.v50n1-2018008
pdf (Español (España))
HTML (Español (España))
EPUB (Español (España))

References

1. Fereshtehnejad SM, Shafieesabet M, Rahmani A, Delbari A, Lökk J. Medium-to-high prevalence of screening-detected parkinsonism in the urban area of Tehran, Iran: data from a community-based door to-door study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015; 11: 321-332. DOI: 10.2147/NDT.S77391.

2. De Lau LM, Breteler MM. Epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease. Lancet Neurol. 2006; 5(6): 525-535. DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(06)70471-9.

3. de Rijk Md, Tzourio C, Breteler M, Dartigues J, Amaducci L, Lopez-Pousa S, et al. Prevalence of parkinsonism and Parkinson’s disease in Europe: the EUROPARKINSON Collaborative Study. European community concerted action on the epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997; 62(1): 10-15.

4. Wirdefeldt K, Adami H-O, Cole P, Trichopoulos D, Mandel J. Epidemiology and etiology of Parkinson’s disease: a review of the evidence. Eur J Epidemiol. 2011; 26(Sup 1): 1-58. doi: 10.1007/s10654-011-9581-6.

5. Twelves D, Perkins KS, Counsell C. Systematic review of incidence studies of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2003; 18(1): 19-31.

6. Hirsch L, Jette N, Frolkis A, Steeves T, Pringsheim T. The incidence of Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroepidemiology. 2016; 46(4): 292-300. DOI: 10.1159/000445751.

7. Barbosa MT, Caramelli P, Maia DP, Cunningham Parkinsonism and Parkinson’s disease in the elderly: A community-based survey in Brazil (the Bambuí study). Mov Disord. 2006; 21(6): 800-808. DOI: 10.1002/mds.20806.

8. Benito-Leon J, Bermejo-Pareja F, Morales-Gonzalez J, Porta-Etessam J, Trincado R, Vega S, et al. Incidence of Parkinson disease and parkinsonism in three elderly populations of central Spain. Neurology. 2004; 62(5): 734-741.

9. Van Den Eeden SK, Tanner CM, Bernstein AL, Fross RD, Leimpeter A, Bloch DA, et al. Incidence of Parkinson’s disease: variation by age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Am J Epidemiol. 2003; 157(11): 1015-1022.

10. Pradilla A, Vesga A, Boris E, León-Sarmiento FE, Roselli DA, Bautista LE, et al. Estudio neuroepidemiológico nacional (EPINEURO) colombiano. 2003; 14(1): 104-111.

11. Wooten G, Currie L, Bovbjerg V, Lee J, Patrie J. Are men at greater risk for Parkinson’s disease than women? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004; 75(4): 637-639.

12. Das SK, Misra AK, Ray BK, Hazra A, Ghosal MK, Chaudhuri A, et al. Epidemiology of Parkinson disease in the city of Kolkata, India: A community based study. Neurology. 2010; 75(15): 1362-1369. DOI: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181f735a7.

13. Duarte J, García Olmos LM, Mendoza A, Clavería LE. The natural history of Parkinson’s disease in the province of Segovia: mortality in a longitudinal study (20-year follow-up). Acta Neurol Scand. 2013; 127(5): 295-300. DOI: 10.1111/ane.12003.

14. Forsaa E, Larsen J, Wentzel-Larsen T, Alves G. What predicts mortality in Parkinson disease? A prospective population-based long-term study. Neurology. 2010; 75(14): 1270-1276. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181f61311.

15. Fernandes GC, Socal MP, Schuh AFS, Rieder CRM. Clinical and Epidemiological Factors Associated with Mortality in Parkinson’s Disease in a Brazilian Cohort. Parkinson’s Disease. 2015; 1(1): 1-6. DOI: 10.1155/2015/959304.

16. Pennington S, Snell K, Lee M, Walker R. The cause of death in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonis Relat Disord. 2010; 16(7): 434-437. DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2010.04.010.

17. Priyadarshi A, Khuder SA, Schaub EA, Priyadarshi SS. Environmental risk factors and Parkinson’s disease: a metaanalysis. Environ Res. 2001; 86(2): 122-127. DOI: 10.1006/enrs.2001.4264.

18. Ishihara LS, Cheesbrough A, Brayne C, Schrag A. Estimated life expectancy of Parkinson’s patients compared with the UK population. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007; 78(12): 1304-1309.

19. Yoritaka A, Fukae J, Hatano T, Oda E, Hattori N. The Direct Cost of Parkinson Disease at Juntendo Medical University Hospital, Japan. Intern Med. 2016; 55(2): 113-119. DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.55.4484.

20. Findley LJ. The economic impact of Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat disord. 2007; 13 (Sup 1): 8-12.

21. Rodríguez-Violante M, Camacho-Ordoñez A, Cervantes-Arriaga A, González-Latapí P, Velázquez-Osuna S. Factores asociados a la calidad de vida de sujetos con enfermedad de Parkinson y a la carga en el cuidador. Neurologia. 2015; 30(5): 257-263. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrl.2014.01.008.

22. Leiknes I, Tysnes OB, Aarsland D, Larsen J. Caregiver distress associated with neuropsychiatric problems in patients with early Parkinson’s disease: the Norwegian ParkWest study. Acta Neurol Scand. 2010;122(6): 418-424. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2010.01332.x.

23. Forsaa EB, Larsen JP, Wentzel-Larsen T, Herlofson K, Alves G. Predictors and course of health-related quality of life in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2008; 23(10): 1420-1427. DOI: 10.1002/mds.22121.

24. Rodríguez-Violante M, Cervantes-Arriaga A, Berlanga-Flores C, Ruiz-Chow A. Depresión como determinante de la calidad de vida de pacientes
mexicanos con enfermedad de Parkinson. Arch Neurocien Mex. 2011; 16 (Sup 1): 120-122.

25. Gómez-Esteban JC, Tijero B, Somme J, Ciordia R, Berganzo K, Rouco I, et al. Impact of psychiatric symptoms and sleep disorders on the quality of life of patients with Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol. 2011; 258(3): 494-499. doi: 10.1007/s00415-010-5786-y.

26. Hanna KK, Cronin-Golomb A. Impact of anxiety on quality of life in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsons Dis. 2012; 1(1): 1-8. DOI: 10.1155/2012/640707.

27. Fumadó JC. Enfermedad de Parkinson y enfermedad de Alzheimer: factores de riesgo ambientales. Neurología. 2014; 29(9): 541-549. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrl.2012.04.001.

28. Valdés EG, Andel R, Sieurin J, Feldman AL, Edwards JD, Langström N, et al. Occupational complexity and risk of Parkinson’s disease. PloS one. 2014; 9(9): e106676. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106676.

29. Dick FD, De Palma G, Ahmadi A, Scott N, Prescott G, Bennett J, et al. Environmental risk factors for Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonism: the Geoparkinson study. Occup Environ Med. 2007; 64(10): 666-672.

30. McCormack AL, Thiruchelvam M, Manning-Bog AB, Thiffault C, Langston JW, Cory-Slechta DA, et al. Environmental risk factors and Parkinson’s disease: selective degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons caused by the herbicide paraquat. Neurobiol Dis. 2002; 10(2): 119-127.

31. Noyce AJ, Bestwick JP, Silveira-Moriyama L, Hawkes CH, Giovannoni G, Lees AJ, et al. Metaanalysis of early nonmotor features and risk factors for Parkinson disease. Ann Neurol. 2012; 72(6): 893-901. DOI: 10.1002/ana.23687.

32. Lill CM. Genetics of Parkinson’s disease. Molecul Cellular Probes. 2016; 30(6): 386-396. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcp.2016.11.001.

33. Satake W, Nakabayashi Y, Mizuta I, Hirota Y, Ito C, Kubo M, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies common variants at four loci as genetic risk factors for Parkinson’s disease. Nat Genet. 2009; 41(12): 1303-1307. DOI: 10.1038/ng.485.

34. Alves G, Müller B, Herlofson K, HogenEsch I, Telstad W, Aarsland D, et al. Incidence of Parkinson’s disease in Norway: the Norwegian ParkWest study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009; 80(8): 851-857.

35. Michel PP, Hirsch EC, Hunot S. Understanding dopaminergic cell death pathways in Parkinson disease. Neuron. 2016; 90(4): 675-691. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.03.038.

36. Abou-Sleiman PM, Muqit MM, Wood NW. Expanding insights of mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2006; 7(3): 207-19. DOI: 10.1038/nrn1868.
37. Schapira AHV, Cooper JM, Dexter D, Clark JB, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Mitochondrial Complex I Deficiency in Parkinson’s Disease. J Neurochem. 1990; 54(3): 823-827.

38. Langston JW, Ballard P, Tetrud JW, Irwin I. Chronic Parkinsonism in humans due to a product of meperidine-analog synthesis. Science. 1983; 219(4587): 979-980.

39. Langston JW, Forno LS, Rebert CS, Irwin I. Selective nigral toxicity after systemic administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyrine (MPTP) in the squirrel monkey. Brain Res. 1984; 292(2): 390-394.

40. Palacino JJ, Sagi D, Goldberg MS, Krauss S, Motz C, Wacker M, et al. Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Damage in parkin-deficient Mice. J Biol Chemistry. 2004; 279(18): 18614-18622. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M401135200.

41. Gautier CA, Kitada T, Shen J. Loss of PINK1 causes mitochondrial functional defects and increased sensitivity to oxidative stress. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA. 2008; 105(32): 11364-11369. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0802076105.

42. Deas E, Wood NW, Plun-Favreau H. Mitophagy and Parkinson’s disease: The PINK1–parkin link. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011; 1813(4): 623-633. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2010.08.007.

43. Burré J, Sharma M, Tsetsenis T, Buchman V, Etherton MR, Südhof TC. Alpha-Synuclein Promotes SNARE-complex assembly in vivo and in vitro. Science. 2010; 329(5999): 1663-1667. DOI: 10.1126/science.1195227.

44. Polymeropoulos MH, Lavedan C, Leroy E, Ide SE, Dehejia A, Dutra A, et al. Mutation in the α-Synuclein Gene Identified in Families with Parkinson’s Disease. Science. 1997; 276(5321): 2045-2047.

45. Spillantini MG, Schmidt ML, Lee VMY, Trojanowski JQ, Jakes R, Goedert M. α-Synuclein in Lewy bodies. Nature. 1997; 388(6645): 839-840.

46. Lashuel HA, Overk CR, Oueslati A, Masliah E.The many faces of α-synuclein: from structure and toxicity to therapeutic target. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013; 14(1): 38-48.

47. Luk KC, Kehm V, Carroll J, Zhang B, O’Brien P, Trojanowski JQ, et al. Pathological α-synuclein transmission initiates Parkinsonlike neurodegeneration in nontransgenic mice.
Science. 2012; 338(6109): 949-953. DOI: 10.1126/science.1227157.

48. Xilouri M, Brekk OR, Stefanis L. Autophagy and Alpha-Synuclein: Relevance to Parkinson’s Disease and Related Synucleopathies. Mov Disord. 2016; 31(2): 178-192. DOI: 10.1002/mds.26477.

49. Chu Y, Dodiya H, Aebischer P, Olanow CW, Kordower JH. Alterations in lysosomal and proteasomal markers in Parkinson’s disease: Relationship to alpha-synuclein inclusions.
Neurobiol Dis. 2009; 35(3): 385-398. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.05.023.

50. Winslow AR, Chen C-W, Corrochano S, Acevedo-Arozena A, Gordon DE, Peden AA, et al. α-Synuclein impairs macroautophagy: implications for Parkinson’s disease. J Cell Biol. 2010; 190(6): 1023-1037.

51. Cuervo AM, Stefanis L, Fredenburg R, Lansbury PT, Sulzer D. Impaired Degradation of Mutant α-Synuclein by Chaperone-Mediated Autophagy. Science. 2004; 305(5688): 1292-1295.

52. Sánchez JC, López-Zapata DF, Romero-Leguizamón CR. Mecanismos de transporte de calcio en neuroprotección y neurotoxicidad. Rev Neurol. 2010; 51(10): 624-632.

53. Damier P, Hirsch EC, Agid Y, Graybiel AM. The substantia nigra of the human brain. II Patterns of loss of dopamine-containing neurons in Parkinson’s disease. Brain. 1999; 122(8): 1437-1448.

54. Kish SJ, Shannak K, Hornykiewicz O. Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 1988; 318(14): 876-880. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM198804073181402.

55. DeLong MR, Wichmann T. Circuits and circuit disorders of the basal ganglia. Arch Neurol. 2007; 64(1): 20-24. DOI: 10.1001/archneur.64.1.20.

56. Calabresi P, Picconi B, Tozzi A, Ghiglieri V, Di Filippo M. Direct and indirect pathways of basal ganglia: a critical reappraisal. Nat Neurosci. 2014; 17(8): 1022-1030.

57. Gerfen CR, Surmeier DJ. Modulation of striatal projection systems by dopamine. Annual review of neuroscience. 2011; 34: 441-466.

58. Gelb DJ, Oliver E, Gilman S. Diagnostic criteria for Parkinson disease. Arc Neurol. 1999; 56(1): 33-39.

59. Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Kilford L, Lees AJ. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992; 55(3): 181-184.

60. Rodriguez-Oroz MC, Jahanshahi M, Krack P, Litvan I, Macias R, Bezard E, et al. Initial clinical manifestations of Parkinson’s disease: features and pathophysiological mechanisms. Lancet Neurol. 2009; 8(12): 1128-1139. DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70293-5.

61. Berardelli A, Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Hallett M. Pathophysiology of bradykinesia in Parkinson’s disease. Brain. 2001; 124(11): 2131-2146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/124.11.2131.

62. Jankovic J. Parkinson’s disease: clinical features and diagnosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2008; 79(4): 368-376. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2007.131045.

63. Massano J, Bhatia KP. Clinical approach to Parkinson’s disease: features, diagnosis, and principles of management. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012; 2(6): a008870. DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a008870.

64. Sveinbjornsdottir S. The clinical symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurochem. 2016; 139 (Sup. 1): 318-324. DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13691.

65. Belvisi D, Conte A, Bologna M, Bloise MC, Suppa A, Formica A, et al. Re-emergent tremor in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2017; 36(1): 41-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2016.12.012.

66. Broussolle E, Krack P, Thobois S, Xie-Brustolin J, Pollak P, Goetz CG. Contribution of Jules Froment to the study of parkinsonian rigidity. Mov Disorders. 2007; 22(7): 909-914. DOI: 10.1002/mds.21484.

67. Williams D, Watt H, Lees A. Predictors of falls and fractures in bradykinetic rigid syndromes: a retrospective study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006; 77(4): 468-473. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2005.074070.

68. Braak H, Del Tredici K, Rüb U, De Vos RA, Steur ENJ, Braak E. Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic Parkinson’s disease. Neurobiology of aging. 2003; 24(2): 197-211.

69. Braak H, Rüb U, Steur EJ, Del Tredici K, De Vos R. Cognitive status correlates with neuropathologic stage in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2005; 64(8): 1404-1410. DOI: 10.1212/01.WNL.0000158422.41380.82.

70. Chaudhuri KR, Healy DG, Schapira AH. Nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease: diagnosis and management. Lancet Neurol. 2006; 5(3): 235- 245. DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70373-8.

71. Garcia-Borreguero D, Larrosa O, Bravo M. Parkinson’s disease and sleep. Sleep Med Rev. 2003; 7(2): 115-129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/smrv.2002.0229.

72. Magerkurth C, Schnitzer R, Braune S. Symptoms of autonomic failure in Parkinson’s disease: prevalence and impact on daily life. Clin Auton Res. 2005; 15(2): 76-82. DOI: 10.1007/s10286-005-0253-z.

73. Pfeiffer RF. Gastrointestinal dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relate Disord. 2011; 17(1): 10-15. DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2010.08.003.

74. Thanvi B, Munshi S, Vijaykumar N, Lo T. Neuropsychiatric non-motor aspects of Parkinson’s disease. Postgrad Med J. 2003; 79(936): 561-565. DOI: 10.1136/pmj.79.936.561.

75. Giuffrida R, Vingerhoets F, Bogousslavsky J, Ghika J. Pain in Parkinson’s disease. Rev Neurologique. 2005; 161(4): 407-418. DOI: 10.1016/S0035-3787(05)85070-2.

76. Hoehn MM, Yahr MD. Parkinsonism onset, progression, and mortality. Neurology. 1967; 17(5): 427-442.

77. Connolly BS, Lang AE. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. JAMA. 2014; 311(16): 1670-1683. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2014.3654.

78. Goetz CG, Pal G. Initial management of Parkinson’s disease. women. 2014; 9(1): 1-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g6258.

79. Ahlskog JE. Seniors with Parkinson’s Disease: Initial Medical Treatment. J Clinic Neurol. 2010; 6(4): 159-166. DOI: 10.3988/jcn.2010.6.4.159.

80. Chondrogiorgi M, Tatsioni A, Reichmann H, Konitsiotis S. Dopamine agonist monotherapy in Parkinson’s disease and potential risk factors for dyskinesia: a meta-analysis of levodopa-controlled trials. Eur J Neurol. 2014; 21(3): 433-440. doi: 10.1111/ene.12318.

81. Adler CH, Sethi KD, Hauser R, Davis T, Hammerstad J, Bertoni J, et al. Ropinirole for the treatment of early Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 1997; 49(2): 393-399.

82. Shannon K, Bennett J, Friedman J, Group PS. Efficacy of pramipexole, a novel dopamine agonist, as monotherapy in mild to moderate Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 1997; 49(3): 724-728.

83. Talati R, Baker W, Patel A, Reinhart K, Coleman C. Adding a dopamine agonist to preexisting levodopa therapy vs. levodopa therapy alone in advanced Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. Int J Clin Practice. 2009; 63(4): 613-623. DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-1241.2009.02027.x.

84. Giugni JC, Okun MS. Treatment of advanced Parkinson’s disease. Current Opinion Neurol. 2014; 27(4): 450-460. DOI: 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000118.

85. LeWitt PA, Fahn S. Levodopa therapy for Parkinson disease A look backward and forward. Neurology. 2016; 86(14 Sup. 1): 3-12.

86. Group PS. Levodopa and the progression of Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2004; 351(24): 2498-2508. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa033447.

87. Manson A, Stirpe P, Schrag A. Levodopa-induceddyskinesias clinical features, incidence, risk factors, management and impact on quality of life. J Parkinsons Dis. 2012; 2(3): 189-198. doi: 10.3233/JPD-2012-120103.

88. Schrag A, Quinn N. Dyskinesias and motor fluctuations in Parkinson’s disease: A community based study. Brain. 2000; 123(11): 2297-2305.

89. Chase TN, Mouradian MM, Engber TM. Motor response complications and the function of striatal efferent systems. Neurology. 1993; 43(12 Sup. 6): 23-27.

90. Aquino CC, Fox SH. Clinical spectrum of levodopa induced complications. Mov Disord. 2015; 30(1): 80-89. DOI: 10.1002/mds.26125.

91. Calabresi P, Di Filippo M, Ghiglieri V, Tambasco N, Picconi B. Levodopa-induced dyskinesias in patients with Parkinson’s disease: filling the benchto-bedside gap. Lancet Neurol. 2010; 9(11): 1106-1117. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70218-0.

92. Fahn S, Bressman SB. Should levodopa therapy for parkinsonism be started early or late? Evidence against early treatment. Can J Neurol Sci. 1984; 11(Sup. 1): 200-205.
93. Müller T. Detoxification and antioxidative therapy for levodopa-induced neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2013; 13(6): 707-718. DOI: 10.1586/ern.13.50.

94. Schapira AH. The clinical relevance of levodopa toxicity in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2008; 23(Sup. 3). 515-20. DOI: 10.1002/mds.22146.
95. Hisahara S, Shimohama S. Dopamine receptors and Parkinson’s disease. International J Med Chem. 2011; 1(1): 1-16. DOI:10.1155/2011/403039.

96. Rascol O, Brooks DJ, Korczyn AD, De Deyn PP, Clarke CE, Lang AE. A five-year study of the incidence of dyskinesia in patients with early Parkinson’s disease who were treated with ropinirole or levodopa. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342(20): 1484-1491. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200005183422004.

97. Constantinescu R, Romer M, McDermott MP, Kamp C, Kieburtz K. Impact of pramipexole on the onset of levodopa-related dyskinesias. Mov Disord. 2007; 22(9): 1317-1319. DOI: 10.1002/mds.21292.

98. Stowe R, Ives N, Clarke C, Van Hilten J, Ferreira J, Hawker R, et al. Dopamine agonist therapy in early Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008; 2(CD006564): 1-92. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006564.pub2.

99. Wood LD. Clinical review and treatment of select adverse effects of dopamine receptor agonists in Parkinson’s disease. Drugs Aging. 2010; 27(4): 295-310. DOI: 10.2165/11318330-000000000-00000.

100.Weintraub D, Koester J, Potenza MN, et al. Impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease: a crosssectional study of 3090 patients. Arch Neurol. 2010; 67(5): 589-595. DOI: 10.1001/archneurol.2010.65.

101.Riederer P, Laux G. MAO-inhibitors in Parkinson’s Disease. Exp Neurobiol. 2011; 20(1): 1-17. DOI: 10.5607/en.2011.20.1.1. 102.Schapira A, Fox S, Hauser R, Jankovic J, Jost W,
Kulisevsky J, et al. Safinamide Add on to L-Dopa: a randomized, placebo-controlled, 24-week global trial in patients with Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and motor fluctuations (SETTLE)(P01. 062). Neurology. 2013; 80(Sup. 7): 1-62.

103.Mizoguchi K, Yokoo H, Yoshida M, Tanaka T, Tanaka M. Amantadine increases the extracellular dopamine levels in the striatum by re-uptake inhibition and by N-methyl--aspartate antagonism. Brain Res. 1994; 662(1-2): 255-258.

104.Wolf E, Seppi K, Katzenschlager R, Hochschorner G, Ransmayr G, Schwingenschuh P, et al. Long-term antidyskinetic efficacy of amantadine in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2010; 25(10): 1357-1363. DOI: 10.1002/mds.23034.

105.Ory-Magne F, Corvol J-C, Azulay J-P, Bonnet A-M, Brefel-Courbon C, Damier P, et al. Withdrawing amantadine in dyskinetic patients with Parkinson disease The AMANDYSK trial. Neurology. 2014; 82(4): 300-307.

106.Pappa S, Tsouli S, Apostolou G, Mavreas V, Konitsiotis S. Effects of Amantadine on Tardive Dyskinesia: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2010; 33(6): 271-275.

107.Friedman J, Koller W, Lannon M, Busenbark K, Swanson-Hyland E, Smith D. Benztropine versus clozapine for the treatment of tremor in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 1997; 48(4): 1077-1080.

108.Katzenschlager R, Sampaio C, Costa J, Lees A. Anticholinergics for symptomatic management of Parkinson s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002; 3(CD003735): 1-22. DOI: 10.1002/14651858. CD003735.

109.Keränen T, Gordin A, Harjola V, Karlsson M, Korpela K, Pentikäinen P, et al. The effect of catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibition by entacapone on the pharmacokinetics and
metabolism of levodopa in healthy volunteers. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1993; 16(2): 145-156.

110.Rinne U, Larsen J, Siden Å, Worm-Petersen J. Entacapone enhances the response to levodopa in parkinsonian patients with motor fluctuations. Neurology. 1998; 51(5): 1309-1314.

111.Stocchi F, Rascol O, Kieburtz K, Poewe W, Jankovic J, Tolosa E, et al. Initiating levodopa/carbidopa therapy with and without entacapone in early Parkinson disease: the STRIDE-PD study. Ann Neurol. 2010; 68(1): 18-27. DOI: 10.1002/ana.22060.

112.Chaudhuri KR, Schapira AH. Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease: dopaminergic pathophysiology and treatment. Lancet Neurol. 2009; 8(5): 464-474. DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70068-7.

113.Seppi K, Weintraub D, Coelho M, Perez-Lloret S, Fox SH, Katzenschlager R, et al. The Movement Disorder Society Evidence-Based Medicine Review Update: Treatments for the non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2011; 26(Sup. 3): 42-80. DOI: 10.1002/mds.23884.

114.Tasker RR. Deep brain stimulation is preferable to thalamotomy for tremor suppression. Surg Neurol. 1998; 49(2): 145-153.

115.Esselink R, De Bie R, De Haan R, Lenders M, Nijssen P, Staal M, et al. Unilateral pallidotomy versus bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation in PD A randomized trial. Neurology. 2004; 62(2): 201-207.

116.Spindola B, Leite MA, Orsini M, Fonoff E, Landeiro JA, Pessoa BL. Ablative surgery for Parkinson’s disease: Is there still a role for pallidotomy in the deep brain stimulation era? Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2017; 158: 33-39. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2017.04.018.

117.Hariz MI, Hariz G-M. Therapeutic stimulation versus ablation. In: Lozano AM, Hallett M, eds. Handbook of Clinical Neurology: Elsevier, 2013. p. 63-71.

118.Bulluss KJ, Pereira EA, Joint C, Aziz TZ. Pallidotomy after chronic deep brain stimulation. Neurosurg Focus. 2013; 35(5): 1-4. DOI: 10.3171/2013.8.FOCUS13293.

119.Bahgat D, Magill ST, Berk C, McCartney S, Burchiel KJ. Thalamotomy as a treatment option for tremor after ineffective deep brain stimulation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2013; 91(1): 18-23. doi: 10.1159/000342491.

120.Miocinovic S, Somayajula S, Chitnis S, Vitek JL.History, applications, and mechanisms of deep brain stimulation. JAMA Neurol. 2013; 70(2): 163-171. doi: 10.1001/2013.jamaneurol.45.

121.Goodman WK, Alterman RL. Deep Brain Stimulation for Intractable Psychiatric Disorders. Ann Rev Med. 2012; 63(1): 511-524. doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-052209-100401.

122.Fox SH, Katzenschlager R, Lim SY, Ravina B,Seppi K, Coelho M, et al. The Movement DisorderSociety Evidence-Based Medicine Review Update: Treatments for the motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2011; 26(Sup. 3): S2-41. DOI: 10.1002/mds.23829.

123.Okun MS. Deep-Brain Stimulation for Parkinson’s Disease. N Engl J Med. 2012; 367(16): 1529-1538.

124.Hickey P, Stacy M. Deep Brain Stimulation: A Paradigm Shifting Approach to Treat Parkinson’s Disease. Front Neurosci. 2016; 10 (173): 1-11. DOI:
doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00173.

125.DeLong MR, Wichmann T. Basal Ganglia Circuits as Targets for Neuromodulation in Parkinson Disease. JAMA Neurol. 2015; 72(11): 1354-1360. DOI: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.2397.

126.Kahan J, Urner M, Moran R, Flandin G, Marreiros A, Mancini L, et al. Resting state functional MRI in Parkinson’s disease: the impact of deep brain stimulation on ‘effective’ connectivity. Brain. 2014; 137(4): 1130-1144.

127.Kalbe E, Voges J, Weber T, Haarer M, Baudrexel S, Klein JC, et al. Frontal FDG-PET activity correlates with cognitive outcome after STN-DBS in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2009; 72(1): 42-49.

128.Follett KA, Weaver FM, Stern M, Hur K, Harris CL, Luo P, et al. Pallidal versus subthalamic deepbrain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2010; 362(22): 2077-2091.

129.Mure H, Hirano S, Tang CC, Isaias IU, Antonini A, Ma Y, et al. Parkinson’s disease tremorrelated metabolic network: characterization, progression, and treatment effects. Neuroimage. 2011; 54(2): 1244-1253. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.028.

130.Pandey S, Sarma N. Deep brain stimulation: current status. Neurology India. 2015; 63(1): 9-18.

131.Deuschl G, Schade-Brittinger C, Krack P, Volkmann J, Schafer H, Botzel K, et al. A randomized trial of deep-brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2006; 355(9): 896-908. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa060281.

132.Weaver FM, Follett K, Stern M, Hur K, Harris C, Marks WJ, et al. Bilateral deep brain stimulation vs best medical therapy for patients with advanced Parkinson disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009; 301(1): 63-73. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2008.929.

133.Kim H-J, Jeon BS, Yun JY, Kim YE, Yang H-J, Paek SH. Initial cognitive dip after subthalamic deep brain stimulation in Parkinson disease. J Neurol. 2013; 260(8): 2130-2133. DOI: 10.1007/s00415-013-6959-2.

134.Rothlind JC, York MK, Carlson K, Luo P, Marks WJ, Jr., Weaver FM, et al. Neuropsychological changes following deep brain stimulation surgery for Parkinson’s disease: comparisons of treatment at pallidal and subthalamic targets versus best medical therapy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015; 86(6): 622-629. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2014-308119.

135.Odekerken VJ, Boel JA, Geurtsen GJ, Schmand BA, Dekker IP, de Haan RJ, et al. Neuropsychological outcome after deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2015; 84(13): 1355-1361.

136.Ashkan K, Rogers P, Bergman H, Ughratdar I. Insights into the mechanisms of deep brain stimulation. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017; 13(9): 548-554. DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.105.

137.Bannier S, Montaurier C, Derost PP, Ulla M, Lemaire J-J, Boirie Y, et al. Overweight after deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson disease: long term follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009; 80(5): 484-488. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2008.158576.

138.Mandat T, Tykocki T, Koziara H, Koziorowski D, Brodacki B, Rola R, et al. Subthalamic deep brain stimulation for the treatment of Parkinson disease. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2011; 45(1): 32-36.

139.Sharma A, Szeto K, Desilets AR. Efficacy and safety of deep brain stimulation as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy for the treatment of Parkinson disease. Ann Pharmacother. 2012; 46(2): 248-254. DOI: 10.1345/aph.1Q508.

140.Umemura A, Oka Y, Ohkita K, Yamawaki T, Yamada K. Effect of subthalamic deep brain stimulation on postural abnormality in Parkinson disease: clinical article. J Neurosurg. 2010; 112(6): 1283-1288.

141.Vergani F, Landi A, Pirillo D, Cilia R, Antonini A, Sganzerla EP. Surgical, Medical, and hardware adverse events in a series of 141 patients undergoing subthalamic deep brain stimulation for Parkinson Disease. World Neurosurg. 2010; 73(4): 338-344. DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2010.01.017.

142.Zibetti M, Rosso M, Cinquepalmi A, Lanotte M, Angrisano S, Rabbia C, et al. Asymptomatic deep venous thrombosis after deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease. Stereotactic and functional neurosurgery. 2010; 88(2): 94-97.

143.Bronstein JM, Tagliati M, Alterman RL, Lozano AM, Volkmann J, Stefani A, et al. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease: an expert consensus and review of key issues. Arch Neurol. 2011; 68(2): 165-171. DOI: 10.1001/archneurol.2010.260.

144.Moldovan A-S, Groiss SJ, Elben S, Südmeyer M, Schnitzler A, Wojtecki L. The treatment of Parkinson’s disease with deep brain stimulation: current issues. Neural Regen Res. 2015; 10(7): 1018-1022. DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.160094.

145.Barker RA, Drouin-Ouellet J, Parmar M. Cellbased therapies for Parkinson disease-past insights and future potential. Nat Rev Neurol. 2015; 11(9): 492-503. DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2015.123.

146.Yasuhara T, Kameda M, Agari T, Date I. Regenerative medicine for Parkinson’s disease. Neurol Med Chir. 2015; 55(2): 113-123. DOI: 10.2176/nmc.ra.2014-0264.

147.Bloem BR, de Vries NM, Ebersbach G. Nonpharmacological treatments for patients with Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2015; 30(11): 1504-1520.

148.Goetz CG, Poewe W, Rascol O, Sampaio C,Stebbins GT, Counsell C, et al. Movement Disorder Society Task Force report on the Hoehn and Yahr staging scale: status and recommendations. Mov Disord. 2004; 19(9): 1020-1028.

149.Emre M, Aarsland D, Albanese A, Byrne EJ, Deuschl G, De Deyn PP, et al. Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Medicine. 2004; 351(24): 2509-2518. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa041470.

150.Poewe W, Wolters E, Emre M, Onofrj M, Hsu C,Tekin S, et al. Long-term benefits of rivastigmine in dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease: An active treatment extension study. Mov Disord. 2006; 21(4): 456-461. DOI: 10.1002/mds.20700.

151.Ravina B, Putt M, Siderowf A, Farrar JT, Gillespie M, Crawley A, et al. Donepezil for dementia in Parkinson’s disease: a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, crossover study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005; 76(7): 934-939. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2004.050682.

152.Litvinenko I, Odinak M, Mogil’naya V, Emelin AY. Efficacy and safety of galantamine (reminyl) for dementia in patients with Parkinson’s disease (an open controlled trial). Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2008; 38(9): 937-945. DOI: 10.1007/s11055-008-9077-3.

153.Emre M, Tsolaki M, Bonuccelli U, Destée A, Tolosa E, Kutzelnigg A, et al. Memantine for patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2010; 9(10): 969-977.

154.Prediger RD, Matheus FC, Schwarzbold ML, Lima MM, Vital MA. Anxiety in Parkinson’s disease: a critical review of experimental and clinical studies. Neuropharmacology. 2012; 62(1): 115-124. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.08.039.

155.Barone P, Poewe W, Albrecht S, Debieuvre C, Massey D, Rascol O, et al. Pramipexole for the treatment of depressive symptoms in patients with Parkinson’s disease: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2010; 9(6): 573-580.

156.Liu J, Dong J, Wang L, Su Y, Yan P, Sun S. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antidepressants in Parkinson’s disease: a network meta-analysis. PloS one. 2013; 8(10): e76651.

157.Pagonabarraga J, Kulisevsky J, Strafella AP, Krack P. Apathy in Parkinson’s disease: clinical features, neural substrates, diagnosis, and treatment. Lancet Neurol. 2015; 14(5): 518-531.

158.Mostile G, Jankovic J. Treatment of dysautonomia associated with Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2009; 15 (Sup. 1): 224-232. DOI: 10.1016/S1353-8020(09)70820-X.

159.Loddo G, Calandra-Buonaura G, Sambati L, Giannini G, Cecere A, Cortelli P, et al. The treatment of sleep disorders in Parkinson’s disease: from research to clinical practice. Front Neurol. 2017; 8(42): 1-15. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00042.

160.Srivanitchapoom P, Pandey S, Hallett M. Drooling in Parkinson’s Disease: a review. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2014; 20(11): 1109-1118.

161.Batla A, Tayim N, Pakzad M, Panicker JN. Treatment Options for Urogenital Dysfunction in Parkinson’s Disease. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2016; 18(45): 1-13. DOI: 10.1007/s11940-016-0427-0.

162.Beiske A, Loge J, Rønningen A, Svensson E. Pain in Parkinson’s disease: prevalence and characteristics. PAIN. 2009; 141(1-2): 173-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2008.12.004.

163.Sánchez-Ferro Á, Benito-León J, Gómez-Esteban JC. The management of orthostatic hypotension in Parkinson’s disease. Front Neurol. 2013; 4(64):
1-11. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2013.00064.

Se autoriza la reproducción total o parcial de la obra para fines educativos, siempre y cuando se cite la fuente.  

 

Esta obra está bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 Pública Internacional.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.